ey ee ay 4h Sitti ones a PUR Rn ER 2 var) hr ; BEDDAIST ARE EN AN IDER TRANSLATED FROM THE ‘HANDBUCH OF PROF ALBERT GRU NWEDEL, BE AG Ne SCs 3G prs ON. REVISED AND ENLARGED IN INS SBURGESS. CH BB, stele I NS &c., Late Director-General of the Archeological Survey of India. WITTE 154 ILLUSTRATIONS. LONDON BERNARD QUARITCH 1901 Freer Gallery of Ari Washington, D. C, IPREFACE, THE first edition of Professor Albert Griinwedel’s handbook on Buddhistische Kunst in Indien appeared in 1893, and the hope was expressed in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society that the work might appear in English, as “ it ought to be in the hands of all antiquarians in India.’ Believing that so important a publication might, by a few additions, form a useful general guide to the Buddhist sculptures in the museums alike of India and Europe, I have prepared the present edition. Miss A.C. Gibson very kindly translated for me the first edition; but by the time it was ready for the press, Prof. Grünwedel had begun his second edition containing extensive additions and alterations. This involved delay and a revision of the whole MS. Considerable additions have also been made to this translation, which have, partly at least, been indicated, and about fifty illustrations are added. The difficulties in interpreting the Gändhära Buddhist sculptures arise chiefly from their fragmentary and unconnected condition. This has been lamentably increased by the ignorance or disregard of scientific methods on the part of the excavators of these remains. Monasteries and stüpas were dug into and demolished without regard to what might be learnt in the process by modern methods ; the more complete fragments only were saved, without note of their relative positions or any attempt to recover smaller portions and chips by which they might have been pieced together; and the spoils were sent to various museums, often without mention of the sites from which they emanated. They were often further scattered at the will of excavators among different museums and private collections, and we cannot now place together the whole of the find from a single site, so as to compare the style,—and still less the order of the reliefs ;—while, of the more carefully surveyed, such plans and sections as were made are defective, and without iv _ PREFACE. explanatory descriptions. It is sincerely to be desired that, in future, the Government of India will prevent amateur excavations, and make sure that their excavators really know how such work ought to be executed. To the “ General-Verwaltung ” of the Royal Museum, Berlin, I am very deeply indebted for the use of the whole of the illustrations in the second edition, and to Professor Grünwedel himself for others from, Globus (3 Feb. 1900); he has also kindly looked over the proofs: and for these favours I would respectfully tender grateful acknowledgments. To the Royal Institute of British Architects I am indebted for the use of illustrations 51, 55, 102, 103, and 104; and to Mr.W. Griggs for 35 blocks that had been prepared for papers on the Gändhära sculptures in the Journal of Indian Art and Industry (Nos. 62, 63, and 69). With this manual in his hand, it is hoped, the visitor to any collection of Buddhist sculptures will find it no difficult task to understand their character and meaning. Much still remains to be added to our information ; but it is only when complete delineations of the sculptures in various museums and private collections, on the Barähat fragments, and in the Kazheri, Elura, and other Bauddha caves are made available, that we shall be able to .interpret more fully the iconography of Buddhism. Towards this object some ‘real progress has recently been made by the Government of India having ordered the photographing in detail of the Saficht reliefs and of the small collections of Gändhära sculptures in the Bombay and Madras museums. JAS. BURGESS. Edinburgh, 1st May, 1901. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I.—INTRODUCTION. pp. 1-27. Conditions of early Indian art development; influence of religion; art—sporadic rather than in schools, 1f. Chronological arrangement; remaining monuments, 2 Buddhist monuments of the Asoka period ; iconographic literature, 3. J Chronological table, 4-6. History of civilization and art history, 4f. The Aryas in the Panjab, 6. The Vedic gods; Sakra in the Veda and in the ‚Päli texts, 7. No image in the earliest period, 7. Technical knowledge of the early Aryans indicated in Vedic literature, 7f. ‘The spoked wheel; stone buildings; defensive works and sttıpas; gold work, 7-8. The Aryans in the Ganges valley, 8f. he 5th century B.c.; Indians, Persians, Greeks, 8. The Persian power “under the Achxmenians, 9. Buddha’s teach- ing—the first world-religion ; Hellenic culture, 9. Relations of the Achemenians with India: Hindhü and Gandhära as subject to the Persians, 9-10. Magadha and Kosala, 10, Religious influence in Indian art, 11f. Philosophy ; metempsy chosis, 11. The universal soul; Brahma and Atma, 12. Deliverance, 13. The -Buddha, 13f. His birth; youth; the four signs, 13. Leaving home, as an ascetic, 13-14. The “ enlightenment,” 14. His death; the first and second councils, 15. The Maurya dynasty of Magadha (Prasioi), 15f. Chandragupta; Asoka—his build- ings and edicts, 15-16. Persian influence in India, 17. Asoka’s buildings, pillars, 17-18. Winged animals; conventionalized plants; native flora; lotus plant, 18-19. The Classes of Monuments defined: Stambhas, Stüpas, Chaityas, Vihäras, Railings and Gateways, 20-21. Two groups: the Indian, and Greeco-buddhist or Gändhära class, 21f. Li¢s, rock- temples, &c., 22f. Barähat ; Gaya, 23. S&fichi, 24. Amarävati, 26. Influence of the Gändhära school: Ajantä, 26- 27. Early school of painting, 27. CHAPTER IL—EARLY INDIAN STYLE. 28-74. Early Indian carving, 28f. Wood-carving transferred to stone; doors and throne- backs, 29. Decorative character of Indian art, 30. Goldsmith’s work, 30-31. Jewellery and the human form, 31f. Nudity; physical development, 33. Mythical and foreign races; the Hindü type, 33-34. Dwarfs; drapery; women’s garments and pose, 35-37: Gods "and demigods; Jätakas, 37. Indra or Sakra, the thunder-god, 38. Brahma; Mara; Devaputras; Sri or Siri, 39. Lesser gods, Yakshas; Sürya, 40f. Hybrid forms: the Naga (snake-demon), two types: the Uraeus snake, and a man with snake hood over the head, and with a man’s body, or with a snake’s, 42f. Matsyanäris, 45. Yakshas, guardians, 45-46. Winged figures, Kinnaris, devatäs, 47f. Garudas, 48f. Garutmant, 49. Parrot forms; Gryps, griffins, 50f, Tibetan dog and Corean lion, Ten-gu, Thien-ku, 51f. Tiryagyonis, 52. Indian animation of fantastic animal forms; throne and pillar decoration, 53. Sabbada¢hajitaka, 58f. Influence of art on Buddhist literature, 56f. ee. influence in certain forms: Makara (dolphin), hippocampus, centaur, pigmies, 57f, vi CONTENTS. Composition, 58ff. Processions to holy places; formal repetition; formal repetitions in the sacred texts, 58. Genre scenes in reliefs, 59. ‘he Buddhist heavens, 60f. The Käsyapa legend in the reliefs on the east gateway at Safichi, 61f. The fire and water wonder at Uruvilvä, 62f. Successive scenes on one relief, 65, Accessories crowded in; the same also in the literature, 66. Buddha only indicated by a symbol, 67. Statues, 68. Intelligibility of the compositions, 68f. The association of reliefs on a monument, a guide to the interpretation, 69f. Architraves of the east gateway at Säfchi: the embassy to Ceylon of a Maurya king, 70f. Buddha’s footprint, 71. Description of the reliefs, 72-74. 1 CHAPTER IIL.—THE GANDHARA SCULPTURES. 75-157. Political history, 75. The Greco-Baktrian kingdom; Eukratides, Menandros, 76f. . Intercourse between east and west, 78. Buddhist missions, 79. The Yueh-chi or Indo-Skythians ; Kanishka and council at Jälandhara, 79. Northern school of Bud- dhism, 80. Gupta dynasty in India, 80f. Manicheism, the Paraclete, 81. Gandarioi and Indoi, 82. Discovery of Gändhära remains; their discussion, 82f. Chronological data and in- ferences, 84f. Resemblances with Italian art, 84. The Gändhära school represents an offshoot of ancient art, but the materials are clearly Indian; in the northern class the forms are continued, 84f. The types, 85ff. ‘The Buddha type; Gautama as Buddha, 85f. The nimbus, 86. Types of the gods; Brahma and Sakra, 87. The supposed Devadatta and Mara, 88. Various types of thunderbolt-bearers; bearded and unbearded heads of gods, 89. Sakra is re-named Vajrapani, and attends on Buddha, 90. Vajrapäni in the Nirvana scenes, 91. Mara rarely appears in Bauddha art, 92. Greeculi influenced the representations by their types, 93. Two figures with thunderbolts in one relief, 94, Sakra as a Yaksha, and Vajrapani a Bodhisattva; Mara with bow and arrow, 95. Local divinities, guardians, 95f. Mära’s army, 96-99. Earth-goddess; ancient Gé-type, 100f. Yakshas support the horse of the Bodhisattva, 102. Undetermined goddesses, 103. The type of the Japanese Ben-ten, Sarasvati, 105. Nagas, 106f, Nagi and Garuda; the Ganymede of Leochares, 108f. _ Devadäsi; nach girl standing under a tree, 111. Re- presentation of Buddha’s birth, 112. The figure at the feet of the dying Buddha: perhaps Käsyapa, 118f. The Bräh- manas, 115. Kings, women, Yavanänis, 116. Artistic value of the Gandhara school, 116. Mechanical reproduction of a series of complete types, 116. Karly pattern compositions: the same continue in the northern schools, 117-118. The composition, 117f. Replicas, e.g. of the birth, the flight from home, preaching scenes, the death (Nirväza) ; represented in fuller and briefer form, 117- 118. Repre- sentation of the Nirvana in Gandhära, Tibet, China, and Japan, 118-123; derived from ancient sarcophagus reliefs, 123. Combination of more than one model in the same panel (the old Indian scheme of successive scenes reappears) with equal-sized ee (of earlier art) ; with unequal figures (later art), 125-126. The Käsyapa legend as combined composition, 127; as a “single composition; and in much abbreviated deian, 128; another combined relief ; the leaving home, 129. Stale composition : Buddha or a Bodhisattva in the centre with two attendants, 130. Decorative elements ; pediments, 131f. Giganto-machia, 134; crouching Atlantes or Garudas, 135; pillar figures; tribute-bearers, 135-136. World-protectors (Lokapälas) and art portraits, 136-1387. Kubera and Virüdhaka, 138. Miscellaneous representations: two scenes connected with Buddha’s birth, 138-139. Asita Rishi and the infant, 139; the bathing, 140; Buddha and an ascetic, 141. Sakra visiting Buddha, 142. The Dipankara Jätaka, 143. The sermon at Isipatana, 144. Feet-washing, 145. The pdtra presented, 145. Ho-shang representative of the Mahayana system, 147. Large and small subordinate figures; Paignia; garland-bearers, 148. Pedestal sculptures, 149f. Wheel symbol and trident, 151. Architectural elements: Persian pillars; Hellenic capitals, 151f. Figures of Buddha in the capitals, 153. Gilding; model sttipas, 154. Infiuence of the Gändhära school on Indian art, 156f. Antiques in the Amarävati sculptures, 157. CONTENTS. vi CHAPTER IV.—REPRESENTATION OF BUDDHA AND BODHISATTVA. 158-214, Chakravartti, 158f. The seven jewels, 159. Apotheosis of Buddha; the greater and lesser beauty-marks, 160f. Bases of the Buddha figure and philosophic explana- tion of the ideal Buddha, 162f. The Buddha image modelled on the Apollo pattern, 163f. A double tendency,—an idealistic and a realistic aim with Indian degeneration of type, 166f. Indo-Baktrian art in China, Korea, Japan, 168f. Buddha with moustache, 169. Treatment of drapery, 169; Greek treatment of it persistent, 170. The sandal-wood statue of King Udayana, 170f. Legendary explanation of the Buddha figure, 171f. Buddha with bare right shoulder or covered, 172f ; in Gandhära, 173- 174, Crowned Buddha figures in further India, 175. Various poses of the Buddha images, 176. Positions of the hands: the mudrds, 177f. Previous Buddhas and their succession, 179f. The Tathägata, 180. Maitreya, 181. The Bodhisattvas represented in royal apparel, 182; they belong only to the Mahayana school; their probable genesis; relations to Hindü gods, 182f.; their numbers and images, 184. How far the mudräs in the Gändhära sculptures help to identify different Bodhisattvas, 185f. Modern representations of Maitreya, 186. Maitreya with a flask in Gandhära, 187f. Buddha with dharmachakra-mudrd, 189. Käsyapa Buddha, 189. The worship of Maitreya early developed ; dominant in the Mahäyäna school, 190. Bodhisattva figures with lotus flowers, 191. Padmapäni; bears also the Amrita flask; danger of confounding Avalokitesvara with Maitreya, 192-194. The Dhyäni Buddhas, 195. Iranian elements; the Fravashis, 195. Repetition of Buddha and Bodhisattva images, 196f. Object of multiplied figures, 197. Adibuddha; colossal figures, 198. The Lotus throne, 198. Two later Bodhisattvas: Mafijusri and Padmapäzi, 199. The Dhyänas, 200f. Padmapä»i and Kuan-yin, 201f. Litany of Avalokitesvara, 203. Groups of figures: triads, pentads; immense pantheon, 204f. Reaction, 205f. Lama portraits in Tibet, China, Japan, 206. Caricature in Japan, 207. Decay of Art; artists handed down traditionally as Yakshas and Nägas, 208. The national element manifested in repetitions of the same forms and in systematizing, 209. Additional illustrations: the coffin of Buddha, and probable identification of Käsyapa, 209f. A model of a shrine, 210f. Head of Buddha, &c., 211f. Conclusion, 212-214. BIBLIOGRAPHY.... ri A fi a is ny as re 215. INDEX. an Hr A a os 2 Nee He AN ae 219. Silt m N i rTM EARLY WoRrsHIP OF BUDDHA’S FOOTPRINTS AND THE BODHI TREE. Pillar capital from Kanheri Caves, BUDDHIST ART IN INDIA. CHAPTER L NRO Carlen. aes artistic efforts of ancient India, specially of the early Buddhist period, are only slightly connected with the general history of art. From the very first two separate schools are met with: one of them, the older—(when the political history of the far East under the Persians had come to an end)—borrows Persian forms, and, indirectly, some Greek ones; and confined as it is to India, subsequently becomes the basis of all that may be called Indian art—Buddhist as well as Brahmanical. The other, which originated in the extreme north-west of India, depends on the antique art which expired when the Roman empire had accom- plished its development of the Mediterranean nations; later it formed a basis for the hierarchical art of Central and Eastern Asia. No other reaction to the art of the West has occurred: the types developed on Indian soil are permanently found in the civilized world of India and Eastern Asia.‘ The religious character, so deeply rooted in the national life of the Indian races, has also continued the guiding principle in their art. In a critical examination of the monuments of ancient India, therefore, it is the antiquarian interest, connected with the history of religion and civilization, that is the most prominent. The art of ancient India has always been a purely religious one; its architecture as well as the sculpture, which has always been intimately connected therewith, was never and nowhere em- ployed for secular purposes. It owed its origin to the growth of a religion which has been called in Europe Buddhism from the honorary title of its founder—“the Buddha”—‘the Enlightened One. The sculpture of ancient India, originating as it did in religious tendencies and destined to serve religious purposes, could only * Conf. especially Kuki Ryüichi, The source of Japanese art, Hansei Zasshi. xii. 1, 1897, 10-13. he figurative part of Brahman art, so far as we are now acquainted with it, is based essentially upon Buddhist elements,—so much so indeed that the Saiva figures originated at the same time as the Northern Buddhist, appear to have fixed types, whilst the iconography of the Vishnu cult embraces chiefly Buddhist elements to which a different interpretation has been given. But still more dependent on Buddhism are the representations of Jaina art. How far this theory may be modi- fied by the new excavations promised by Oldenburg (Vostocnyja Zametki, p. 359, and | nute 3) is for the future to decide, 2 CHRONOLOGICAL ARRANGEMENT. follow its own immediate purpose in sacred representations: other- wise it was, and remained, simply decorative and always connected with architecture. In accordance with the Indian character, the sacred representations themselves were not so much the outset of the development as its end. According to the view of life prevailing among the Hindus, purely artistic execution never found scope in the existence of schools, but only in sporadic instances. The sacred figures themselves even came to be employed again decoratively. Since the history of Indian civilization became better known in Europe, our previous ideas respecting the antiquity of Hindu art have been found to be very exaggerated. In fact, Indian art is the most modern of all Oriental artistic efforts. No important monument goes further back than the third century B.c. The period of its development comprises about a thousand years—from the third century B.C. to the sixth or seventh century A.D In Asiatic countries, outside India, which subsequently embraced the doc- trines of Buddha, ecclesiastical art is developed on the basis of Indian types until the middle ages (13th to 14th century). Till then the sculptures are executed in stone and frequently on a large scale, but gradually the Buddhist sculpture becomes a miniature manufacture in different materials—wood and clay in place of stone, and later, in metal casts—carried on as a trade. Indian art, as already mentioned, borrowed from two artistic schools, complete in themselves, but of very different characters— the ancient Oriental, introduced through the Achamenides, and the Greco-Roman: and the elements thus acquired it utilized for national themes. In its relation on one hand to the vague hybrid style of-the Achamenides whose influence, in the more ancient monumental groups of India, led to the introduction of certain Greek elements, the native Indian style, with its animated and powerful conceptions of nature, succeeded in preserving its inde- pendence and in developing itself up to a certain point. The introduction of early ideal types and the antique style of com- position, on the other hand, resulted in a rigid adherence to consecrated forms, that is, toa canon. Above all, stress must be laid on the fact that in comparison with the vast extent of the country, the monuments are far from numerous, that great numbers of them have been destroyed through the indolence or by the sheer Vandalism of men of other faiths, so that considerable monumental groups, in good preservation, remain only where the districts subsequently became deserted and the monuments were consequently forgotten and so saved from direct | destruction at the hand of man; or where, as happened in Ceylon, the old religion remained and protected the monuments of olden times. It is therefore exceedingly difficult to represent a continuous development; the individual monuments appear as independent groups, the connexion of which can be sketched only in a general way. Add to this the difficulty of dating the separate monuments, THE MONUMENTS. 3 dependent on chance discoveries of inscriptions dated in eras that are not always sufficiently defined, inferences from the form of alphabet used, etc. It is true that in this domain new and import- ant materials may any day be discovered. As concerns further the development of the artistic canon of the modern schools of Buddhism—which, on account of their valuable tradition, afford (as we shali see) a valuable source of information for the analysis of the subjects represented—as yet critical works thereon hardly exist. In India itself, Buddhism has been extinct for centuries. The remains of the first golden age, under king Asoka, have for the most part perished: single monumental groups—gigantic heaps of rubbish, still testify to the time when Central India was quite covered with Buddhist buildings. But in the traditional forms of the temples still in existence outside India, we find highly important - materials for an explanation of the old representations. Buddhist archeology must therefore begin with the investigation of the modern pantheon, especially of the northern schools, z.e. of the religious forms of Tibet, China, and Japan, so as to recognise the different artistic types, and trying to identify them with the ancient Indian. Combined with researches into the history of the sects and, above all, of the hierarchy, there must be a separation of the different phases from one another, and the earliest forms must be looked for to a certain extent by eliminating later developments. The solution of many difficulties will be reached when the history of the different types of Buddhas- and Bodhisattvas, gods and demons, &c., is traced. Unfortunately, however, the raw material required for this task has not yet, to any extent, been made access- ible But besides pictures and sculptures there is a class of literature, belonging especially to the northern school, that is of great importance to Bauddha archeology. “The modern precepts for the manufacture of representations of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas —containing the dimensions and arrangement of the figure with the ceremonial rites to be performed, even to the animating of the figure by means of a relic, the opening of the eyes, and so on,— these, as well as the voluminous descriptions of the gods, found in the Tibetan Kanjur and especially in the Tan-jur,' with data as to * Kanjur—written in Tibetan: /Ka-gyur, the “translated word of Buddha ”—is the title of the canonical literature of Tibet. In the Royal Library at Berlin is a hand- somely executed MS. copy in 108 folios. Its richly decorated covers exhibit repre- sentations of the gods executed in gold and gay colours; all are named. It would be a meritorious and, for the history of the sects, an important task to compare these pictures with the contents of the volumes. The comparison of the illustrations of the Tibetan gods (Pantheon des Tschanangtscha Hutuku, the five hundred gods of Nar- thang, &e.) with the Buddha Pantheon of Nippon published by Hoffmann, as well as with the Nepalese miniatures described by A. Foucher, would be another useful task. Se2 Burgess, Gandhdra Sculptures, sep. repr., p. 18, or Jour. Ind. Art, vol. VIII, p. 40. The Tanjur, Tib. dsTan-gyur, literally “ The translated doctrine,” forms to some extent the commentary to the Kanjur: the edition at Berlin is in 225 volumes (Nar-thang printing) and contains much material for the history of art. The Indian miniatures are of course more valuable than the Tibetan sources—and the Japanese tradition, which has in many cases retained the oldest forms, should not be overlooked. 4 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. the proportions of the figures, aureoles, attributes, &c., are author- ities on Buddhist iconography. To these, as yet, little attention has been paid, but their importance must not be underestimated. Just as little known are the manuals on sorcery—the Sädhanamdla : they are important inasmuch as they prescribe for the exorcist the dress and attributes by which, according to the conceptions of the degenerate northern school, the Bodhisattva to be conjured may be propitiated: but these attributes are always the same as those of the deity himself. In the following investigation an attempt will be made to retrace this retrograde path and to determine some of the principal types, on the basis of the materials now accessible, and to analyse the component forms. For this reason—although the investigation - only concerns ancient Indian art—we shall frequently have to go beyond India, especially with a view to determine the types; for Tibetan and Japanese forms present highly interesting develop- ments of Indian models. As an aid to understanding the summary of the history of the Buddhist religion, the following chronological table’ may be found useful. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. B.C.558-529. Cyrus or Kurush of the Achemenian dynasty took Babylon and founded the Persian Empire. 557 Probable date of the birth of Siddhartha, or Gautama Säkya Muni, the Buddha. 528 Siddhartha became an ascetic; assumed Buddhahood. 500 BEFORE CHRIST. 521-485 Dareios Hystaspes (Daryavush Vishtaspa) king of Persia. 514-486. Bimbisära or Srenika, king of Magadha. 486-461. Ajätasatru or Künika, son of Bimbisära, king of Magadha. 485-465. Xerxes (Khshayärshä), king of Persia; 'Thermopyle, 480. 478 Virüdhaka of Kosala exterminated the Säkya clan. 477 Parinirväza or death of Säkya Muni; and first Buddhist Council at Räjagriha. 400 BEFORE CHRIST. 377 Second Buddhist Council (?), said to have been held at Vaisali in the 10th year of Kalasoka. 326 Alexander of Macedon invaded India after conquering Persia and Soydiana. 321-280. Seleukos Nikator, in the partition of Alexander’s empire, obtained Babylon, Syria, and Persia: Porus and Taxiles were allowed to hold the Panjäb. 315-291. Chandragupta (Sandrakottos) founded the Maurya dynasty in India. 312 Era of the Seleukides, Oct. 1st. 305 Seleukos invaded Baktria and India; Megasthenes his ambassador. 300 BEFORE CHRIST. 291-263. Bindusära successor of Chandragupta: Deimakhos ambassador from Seleukos. 263-221. Asoka, installed 259, third king of the Maurya dynasty. 256 Baktria revolted from Antiokhos Theos under Diodotos or Theodotos who founded the Greeco- Baktrian kingdom. 250 cir. Arsakes founded the Parthian kingdom. 242 Third Buddhist Council held at PäZuliputra; and missionaries sent to Ceylon, Gandhära, Kashmir, &e. ! This table is an extension of that given by Prof. Grünwedel in the Handbiich, pp. 165, 166.—J. B, CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 5 300 BEFORE CHRIST, continued. 220 Kuthydémos usurped Baktria and extended the Greek power in India and Tartary. 205 Antiokhos III, Magnus, formed a treaty with Sophagasenos, an Indian prince. 200 BEFORE CHRIST. 180 Eukratides extended his power in the Panjib and Baktria. 178 The sunga dynasty in India, founded by Pushyamitra. 178 cir. ‘The Andhrabhritya dynasty founded in the Dekhan. 145 cir. Menander (or Milinda) of Sanyala in the Panjab. 140 cir. Probable date of Sänchi gateways 139 Mithridates of Parthia overthrew the Greco-Baktrian kingdom. 126 Baktria overrun by Skythians. 110-86 cir. Duétha, Gämani ruling in Ceylon. 100 BEFORE CHRIST. 65 Syria became a Roman province. 57 Samvat era of Malwa and Western India, Sept. 18th. 45 cir. The Bauddha doctrines first reduced to writing in Ceylon: the Dhar- maruchika schism. 30 The Kushana tribe of the Yueh-ti under Kozulo Kadphises subjugates Kabul. BIRTH OF CHRIST. A.D. 30 cir. Gondophures or Gudaphara ruled west of the Indus or in Gandhära and the Käbul valley. Gandhära school of sculpture began. 67 Ming-ti, emperor of China, received Buddhist missionaries, 78 Kanishka the Kushan, king of North-Western India. 100 AFTER CHRIST. 100 cir. Buddhist Council at Jälandhara, presided over by Vasumitra. 107 Indian embassy to Trajan. 130 cir. Nasik Buddhist caves excavated. 138 ' Indian embassy to Antoninus Pius. 150-200 cir. Nagarjuna, founder of the Madhyamika system, flourished, 170 cir. Amarävati stüpa rail; earlier caves at Kanheri excavated. 200 AFTER CHRIST. 226 Ardeshir-Bäbegän of Parthia founded the Säsänian dynasty of Persia. 260 Valerian defeated by Shapur the Säsänian. 264 Odenathus of Palmyra repulsed Shapur; period of Palmyrene greatest prosperity. 270 Manes flourished; Manicheean heresy: he died 274. 273 Defeat of Zenobia and fall of Palmyra. 800 AFTER CHRIST. 319 Chandragupta I. of the Gupta dynasty crowned: Gupta epoch. 360 Repulse of the Romans by Shapur LI. at Singara and Bezabda. 371 Shapur LI. renewed the war against Rome and was defeated: died 379. 372 Buddhism introduced into Korea. / 400 AFTER CHRIST. 399-414. Fah-hian, a Chinese Buddhist, travelled in India and Ceylon. 401-414. Chandragupta II, Gupta king; inscriptions at Saüchi and Udayagiri. 420 Buddhaghosa of Ceylon, translator of the Atthakathd and author of the Vasuddhi Magga. 4:22 War between Baharäm or Varahräm of Persia and the emperor Theodosius. 430 Kidära Shahi established the kingdom of the little Kushans in Gan- dhära, but they were expelled by the Ephthalites or White Huns, A.D. 470. 4.63 Dutasena, king of Ceylon, erected an image of Maitreya, 472 Simha, the Buddhist patriarch, put to death by Mihirakula of Sägala, who persecuted the Buddhists in Gandhira, 500 AFTER CHRIST. 518 Sung-yun, Chinese pilgrim, resided in Gar.dhära. i The Buddhist Z’ripitaka, first collected in Chinese by Wu-ti. 6 CHRONOLOGY, “HISTORICAL SKETCH. 500 AFTER CHRIST, continued. ; 520 cir. Vasubandha and Arya Asanya, Buddhist teachers in Gandhära, 552 Buddhism introduced into Japan from Korea. 578 Bädämi Brahmanical caves excavated. 591 Khusrü Parviz restored to the throne of Persia by the emperor Maurice. 600 AFTER CHRIST. 606 Harshavardhana of Thänesvar: epoch of his era. 609 Khusrü overran Syria and took Damascus and Jerusalem, 614. 625 cir. Pulikesin II., the Chalukya king, received an embassy from Khusrü of Persia. 629-645. . Hiuen Thsang, from China, travelled and studied in India. 632 Buddhism propagated in Tibet under king Srong-btsan-sgam-po. 634 Council held at Kanyakubja under Harshavardhana. 632-651. Yazdijard, the last Säsänian king, overthrown by the Musalmans, 651. 639 Buddhism introduced into Siam. 671-695. I-tsing from China travelled in India and-the Malay archipelago. We may now attempt a very brief sketch of ancient Indian history. The civilization of the country is ascribed to the Arya race, a branch of the so-called Indo-Germanic family, which immi- grated into the peninsula from the north-west and, in part, at once overcame the peoples settled there, and, after two thousand years’ labour, compelled them, partly, to adopt their system of civilization. The Indian peninsula forms a world by itself, whose inhabitants, - originally totally different, thus amalgamated into one whole, whilst in detail they represent all grades of social life from bar- barism of the rudest kind to the most refined hyperculture. Entirely cut off from the outer world, this mighty land seems intended by nature to provide for its inhabitants a peculiar develop- ment with a sufficiently independent movement. From north-west to north-east the peninsula is sharply separated from North Asia by a mountainous range of prodigious height in the snow peaks of the Himalayas: only the Kabul passes on the Kabul river afford free communication with the north-west. This is the old high road by which the Aryans penetrated and which the conquerors of antiquity and of the Middle Ages also followed. On the north-west frontier several large rivers come down from the western regions of the Himalayas towards the south-west, and flow through a broad, hot, and storm-beaten plain. This is the land of the Five Rivers, the Panjäb,—the first land that the Aryans possessed themselves of, when they conquered and pene- trated into India (cir. 2000 B.C.?), while the Iranians, a people closely akin to them, directed their course to the nearer East. Other mighty rivers of far greater volume than those of the Panjab also flow from the Himalayas, but towards the east. ‘hey traverse a vast, sandy, low-lying plain which owes to them ‘its tropical vegetation. This plain is Hindustan proper—the cradle of ancient Indian civilization which, following thence the course of. the rivers, advanced to their mouths. In the period which followed, the Aryans by degrees became acquainted with the coasts of the peninsula of the Dek han (Sanskrit: Dakshinapatha—the path on the right), which lies to the south of Hindustan, and they also made THE ARYANS. VEDIC GODS. SAKRA. 5 their way gradually into its interior—a high plateau rising towards the south. Notwithstanding the enclosed position ofthe Peninsula, extraneous influences have not been wanting; indeed, they operated only the more decidedly and perceptibly, the rarer they were. To these foreign elements, which penetrated from the north- west, Indian art belongs in a very marked degree. ‘The most important basis for the development of an independent art among any people lies in its religion. “The gods of the Indian Aryans, when the race was still in the Panjab, were personified nature forces of an unusually vague form. The old “ ritual-poems” of this people, the Rigveda, gives us sufficient information as to this. The ever-recurring myth of the theft of the fertilizing Rain by malicious demons, which are then killed by the gods (devas), whereon the Rain is again set at liberty, and brings food, riches, and happiness, is, for example, ascribed to almost all the principal deities. The stolen Rain appears as “treasures,” as “cows,” as “Wet: Milk or Water. The place whence the demons get these treasures is sometimes a bank of clouds, sometimes a mountain: in the language of these old poems, the words for clouds and moun- tains are confounded. In short, the world of gods merges into nature, so that the Vedic mythology, in common with other nature religions (e.g. the German), has an elementary and quite unplastic character. The Vedic idea indeed goes further: each individual god, unrestricted by the control of another deity, appears when the sacrificer calls upon him; for the sacrificer each is the chief god, in full possession of all the divine attributes. Thus it is difficult to define the peculiarities of the separate divinities ; a development into fixed characters does not belong to this early period. But it is important.in the history of art that in the thunder-storm all the principal figures fight against the demons. One is specially promi- nent in the Veda; itis Sakra (Pali, Sakka), the god of thunder, and in the oldest Buddhist S¢ras also, he is almost the only deity of clearly pronounced type. Artistic representations of the very hazy figures of Vedic mythology were clearly impossible. The precise reduction to rule of the qualities, spheres of influence, and attributes of the Hindu gods, belongs only to the post-Buddhist period when, by the sanction of numerous popular cults, till then disdained, more defined figures appeared. In Vedic times sacred representations were not required. As the offering of sacrifice strengthened the god,—made him capable of granting the desires of the suppliant,—it was the principal thing. On the strength of this idea a laboriously developed sacrificial ritual arose, which, when properly performed, could compel the god to the service of men. Of course, we meet with specimens of primitively artistic character: altars in the form of a Garuda, &c., without being able to form a clear idea of the architecture and plastic art of that early period. For the rest, from the Vedic poems we learn little of pictorial art. Some passages certainly, in 8 SAKRA IN THE VEDA. STONE BUILDINGS. quite late poems may be regarded as speaking of idols, possibly belonging to domestic worship. In the primitive period, the spoked-wheel is referred to as the grandest kind of work of the Vedic Aryans. And for primitive man, the construction of a spoked wheel does, indeed, betoken a vast stride forwards. In the Rigveda the wheel (with its spokes, of which “none is the last’) and its form are favourite similes, and often executed representations. ‘lhe much-lauded Indra,” (thus it says in the Rigveda, vii. 32, 20) ‘‘ I incline by means of the song, as a cartwright bends the rim of a wheel made of good wood; or (Sakra) “the lightning in his hand, rules over all men, as the rim of a wheel embraces the spokes” (Rigv. i. 32, 35). It would carry us too far to follow out all the similes; the wheel remains in the Indian civilised world of antiquity, and even down to modern times, as the symbol of occult power, the theme for grand poetical sumiles. The Buddhists took the wheel, as we ‘shall see below, as one of the distinctive emblems of their religion. As for stone buildings at that early age, we may at least suppose strong walls for defence and rough conical stone con- structions over the graves of kings, which latter custom has been inferred from a study of the stüpa architecture to be discussed below. All buildings for secular ends were in wood, as they are in Indo-China and the eastern archipelago to the present day. It should be mentioned that, in the early period of Indian civiliz- ation, rich and really quite artistic gold ornamentation was every- where known. Over-population, and perhaps also the crowding-in of other Aryan races, forced a portion of the Aryans to leave the Panjab and follow the course of the rivers flowing eastwards. The close of the Vedic period shows us confederations of peoples opposing each other and bands of Aryans pouring into the valley of the Ganges, in the tropical climate of which a civilization is developed altogether different from that of the Vedic age in the Panjab. The races left behind in the Panjab have no share in this new period of civilization; from this time forward they go their own way, are considered by the inhabitants of Hindustan as kingless and ex- cluded (AräsAZra, the Adraistoi of the Greeks), but retain their full fighting powers. The fifth century before Christ plays a decisive röle in the history of the early peoples of the so-called Indo-Germanic race. The three nations that first left their impress on the history of mankind as civilizing powers of the noblest kind, were the Indian Aryans, the Iranians who hardly differed from them in dialect, and the Hellenes with their kindred races. We cannot here discuss the fundamentally different practical proofs of the national dispositions of these peoples; but it is important to mention that the essentially religiously and philosophically disposed character of the Indian Aryans is met with again in the course of history among the THE PERSIAN POWER. GREEK CULTURE. 9 western peoples allied to them, and they derived from them faculties which the Indian soil could not have brought to maturity. At the end of the sixth century the Persians and Medes had laid the foundations of the first veritable empire of the ancient Orient— the: Smpire of the Achse menides.ı Dariusp the’ son of Hystaspes, succeeded in recovering the conquests of the great Cyrus, and organizing them into a powerful state under Medo- -Persian supremacy. With this the ancient history of the East closes its first period; the Persians become the heirs of all the previous currents of civilization which, under their rule, merge into one. In the course of the fifth century Greek freedom is developed in the struggles with the kingdom of the Achzmenides, and at the same time Greek culture attains its apogee. Now about the time that Pythagoras taught in Italy and before Socrates and Plato, Gautama Siddhartha the“ Buddha “the sage of the Sakya race (Sakyamuni) was preaching deliverance from transmigration. The ethical precepts based on his teachings were the first among the religions of the world to spread beyond the bounds of the nation where they had birth. When the strict preservation of the national element among the peoples of antiquity is considered, this fact is of distinctive importance. A glance at the map shows India as the heart of the old world; in fact, the ideas that emanated from India, the elements of culture matured there, had been derived from outside, had been recast and transformed over and over again by an indescribably fertile imagina- tion, sometimes indeed worked up even to extravagance, and in all these stages given out again broadcast to the world. In the rise of Indian studies, India was looked on as “the cradle of mankind,” the “seat of primzval wisdom :” this was a mistake. Still in one’s zeal to reduce everything to proper proportions we must not .go so far as either to ignore or to minimise the immense importance of Indian life in the history of human culture. Afterwards, the civilization of Athens became the foundation of all western culture; the religion of Buddha is the first universal religion, at least, for all countries lying east and north of India,— from the steppes of the Mongols and the mountainous wildernesses of Tibet, through Japan and far into the Indian archipelago A century and a haif after the Buddha’s death the Macedonian empire combined the states of Greece into a universal monarchy, which became the heir of the Achemenides. The Hellenes formed ! It may be worth referring to Lucian Schermann’s critique of Oldenberg’s Buddha, 3rd ed. 1897, in the Deutschen Literatur-Zeitung, Nr. 5, 1899, Ss. 177ff. It is note- worthy that, in contrast with the zeal shown in representing Buddha’s system as a mere parrot-like imitation of the Brahmanical, it should not have occurred to anyone that all Brahman philosophy works pro domo—for the Brahman caste; and further that, amid the constant squabbles on purely religious questions, we forget the meaning of Buddhism in its bearing on the history of civilization. (Conf. Ehrenreich in Zeitschr. f. Ethnologie, 1897, V,171). If Buddha were only an echo of the Brahmans, whence his success? He seems, however, to have been an uncommon personality ! IO RELATIONS OF THE ACHAMENIDES WITH INDIA. the western frontier of this powerful kingdom ; while on the east it was defined by the countries of north-western India first opened by Alexander the Great. It is important in the history of ancient Buddhist sculptures to remember the political relations which prevailed between the king- dom of the Achemenides and N.W. India. Darius (old Persian Daryavaush),! son of Hystaspes, was the first king of the dynasty regarding whose territorial acquisitions and explorations in India we have trustworthy information. After this king,in great measure through struggles with cognate peoples, had restored the empire of his famous ancestors and had prepared the way at least for its powerful organization, he attempted, as Herodotus says, “to explore large parts of Asia.’’ One of these undertakings was the search for the mouth of the Indus,? whither an, expedition, under Skylax of Karyanda, was sent. In the later inscriptions’ of this monarch, the Hindus (Hidhu) and the Gandhäras (Gadära) are mentioned among the subject peoples. They are the tributary dwellers by the Indus (Sansk. Sindhu; Old Pers. Hindhu), and the Aryan inhabitants of Käbül and that district, known in India as Gandhära, in Herodotus the Gandarioi.‘ Under Xerxes, the son and successor of Darius, the Hindhu and Gandhara peoples belonging to the Arakhosian satrapy, still owed allegiance to the Persian king; Indian troops went to Greece with the great army, wintered with Persians and Medes under Mardonios in Thessaly, and sustained with them the defeat of Platza.’ Later they seem to have regained some of their independence; still we know far too little about events in the east of the kingdom of the Achzmen- ides to be able to pronounce any judgment. To return to India: in the fifth century B.C. we find the Indian Aryans, who had made their way from the Panjab into the plain of the Ganges, divided into a number of kingdoms under Brahman civilization. ‘The most powerful of these states is the kingdom of Magadha; a rival state is that of Kosala, with its capital Sravastt (Pali: Sävatthi) on the Rapti, in what is now the Nepal Taräi. Fierce feuds raged between these States and the neigh- bouring principalities tributary to them ; the struggles against the original inhabitants had ceased long before. The system of caste is fully established. Side by side with the richly developed court life of the numerous great and small principalities—large fortified places are described—a luxurious city-life appears ; trade flourishes; in the towns a vigorous industrial activity prevails. Along with 1 Rawlinson’s Herodotus, vol. ILI., p. 544, and Jour, R. As. Soc., vol. XI., p. 185. 2 Herodotus, Bk. iv. c. 44. 3 Behistun Inscrip. in Rawlinson’s Herodotus, vol. II., p. 593, and J. R. As. Soc., vol. X., p. 280; Nakhsh-i-Rustam inser., J. R, A. Soc., vol. X., p. 294; see also Lassen, Indische Alterthums, Bd. I., Ss. 503f. * Herodotus, Bk. ili, c. 91; vii, c. 66. 5 Herodotus, Bk. vii, c. 65; vill, 113; ix, 31. RITUAL, CASTE: PHILOSOPHY. .METEMPSYCHOSIS. MEAL this is a frugal peasant-class much left to itself—the real basis of Indian national life at all periods of Indian civilization. Religion is entirely in the hands of the Brahmans; a laboriously constructed sacrificial ritual has sprung from the ancient Indian Nature- worship. The Brahmans alone are in possession of this ritual, and through the sacred power of their sacrifices they can put a curb on the warrior nobles who are always at strife. The forms of worship of the other castes, especially of the common people, were quite left to themselves. In this way a popular worship, which becomes gradually more refined in proportion asthe caste is higher, is every- where found side by side with the official religion of the “ gods in human form,” z.e. the Brahmans. In the great sacrificial festivals of the princes the people participated at most aS spectators; the domestic rites, the Püjä, were a repetition on a smaller scale of the official ceremonies. Every village had its sacred fig-tree which was supposed to be the abode of a god, to whom gifts (food, flowers, etc.) were brought (balıkammam kar). The whole structure of Indian life is permeated by a deep religious character, which, with- out being called forth by exterior pressure, is the result of their condition. Whilst in the luxury of the cities a tendency towards pessimism makes itself felt, the people do not feel so much the need of an organised Nature-religion. The want of national feeling, the enervating influence of the climate, the contrasts between rich and poor, the exclusiveness of the State-worship, may have been the basis of this religious impulse. The caste system, which had been built up to keep the Aryan blood pure and to pre- vent intermarriages, was inimical to all true national feeling ; for the Indian, indeed, the caste system embraced the whole world. One who had no caste was of no account, and thus was no worthy adversary. The contrasts between poor and rich had a different effect in India from that produced elsewhere. In a land where Nature provides everything, and a handful of rice suffices to sustain life, the tendency is to shake off the worries of civilization and to return to Nature itself. But the degree of civilization to which the nation had attained even in the Panjab had penetrated so deeply, at least among the upper castes, that a relapse into barbarism was in consequence impossible. This return to the simple life which the tropical wilderness afforded was prescribed’ for the Brahmans. We see them in their retreats occupied in solving the enigma of life and, if the answers they found rightly seem pessimistic to the European, it cannot be denied that the intense moral earnestness of the whole movement, which proceeded from the wisest heads in the nation, effected a magnificent development of the theorems themselves. The interrogations astound by their boldness; the answers by their inexorable logic. The doctrine of the transmigration of-souls—really only a further development of the caste system—held out the possibility of winning a better reincarnation. But the chief aim was how to 12 THE UNIVERSAL SOUL. BRAHMA AND ÄTMAN. escape being reincarnated at all. Stated as briefly as possible, the concatenation of ideas was much as follows: The Nature-gods of ancient times could be forced by means of rightly performed sacrifice to grant what was asked. In this way the attempt to conceive of the origin of the world as independent of the gods (ve. without a real creation) may be explained. The World-Soul, that is, the Brahma, is recognised as the fundamental substance from which all individual souls (ä/man) emanate in order ulti- mately to return to it, after freeing themselves from any corporeal vestment. Now the union into which the individual soul, emanating from the Brahma, enters in its embodiment (the one being eternal like the other), brings it into bondage; for, through the embodiment, it becomes conscious of its own personal individuality and begins to act: but every action tends to good or evil, reward or punish- ment, joy or sorrow. According to what these actions are, the soul, after its separation from the body, passes through heaven and hell, and when reward and punishment are there exhausted, it returns once more to a bodily existence, and, according to the sum of its previous actions, is born again as Brähman, god, human being of high or low caste, animal, plant, or mineral, to re-enter the cycle (sänsara) of transmigration. Now in the choice of the means of escaping from this cycle to freedom and re-union with the All-Soul the schools differ. But the fundamental idea remains in all the ancient Indian forms of religion, and down to modern times. Not only, however, do the Brähmans give themselves up to these speculations in their schools; at kings’ courts these matters are discussed; rich citizens take part in the movement, and, side by side with professional monks of the first rank, schools of monks and ascetics are developed, composed of members of the other castes. The Brahmans themselves, quite in the middle of the movement, were far from being, on principle, opponents of new schools of philosophy. The opposition of these new sects to the official doctrines gradually became very marked and showed itself clearly in the fact that the heterodox disdained to quote examples and proofs for their theorems from the Vedic literature. In India, diametrically opposed religions have always treated each other with a tolerance which would be quite inconceivable in other lands. It need scarcely be mentioned that the condition of things thus indicated was not calculated to promote the growth of a powerful national art. ‘The efforts of ancient Indian civilization were con- fined to the domain of the intellectual ; their fundamental character was speculative, although their expression might point to aims of a religious and mystical, or philosophical and scientific character. Though a religio-mystical element may serve as a scanty foil for fully perfected’ or decadent artistic efforts, the philosophical- scientific tendency, especially with the practical side which it had in ancient India, is an altogether barren soil for art. DELIVERANCE. sAUTAMA THE BUDDHA. 13 Deliverance from reincarnation was sought for in different ways ; different sects arose which did not, however, take up an attitude of conscious opposition to the Brahman religion. The pressure from without, the heavy taxation, the bloody wars between the different states may have combined to attract proselytes to the religious sects. But the fact that the founder of Buddhism was himself a prince, refutes the idea that exterior pressure played the leading réle. For even if the legends exaggerate, it cannot be doubted that Buddha came of a powerful and opulent family.! At the foot of the Himalayas to the north of Gorakhpur, on the river Rohit (z.e. Kohan) a tributary of the Rapti, was the town and domain of Kapilavastu (Pali, Kapilavatthu)” which be- longed to the Säkya family or clan. In the sixth century B.C. this principality belonged to Suddhodana, and was at constant feud with its next neighbours the Kodya (Pali, Koliya) clan, dwelling on the east of the Rohizi. To the chief of Kapilavastu, who had wedded two sisters—Maya and Prajäpati,—there was born a son who received the name of Gautama Siddhartha (Pali, Gotama Siddhattho).” The legends further relate how the child was recognised by the old Brahman ascetic Asita as the coming Deliverer, and how the young prince surpassed all his companions of his own age in bodily strength and mental capacity. To terminate peacefully the old feuds with the Ko/iya, the young prince was betrothed to the Koliya princess Yasodharä, and maintained a brilliant court. Once, as he drives out, a god appears to him four times—as an infirm old man, as a sick man, as a corpse in a state of decom- position, and as an ascetic (freed from human wants). This sight and the explanations which Gautama receives from his coachman, Chhardaka, raise in him the first thoughts of determination to renounce the world. After a son, Rähula, has been born to him he carries out his resolve. He parts from his sleeping wife, and flees from the well-guarded palace. A canonical text (Avidürenidäna) describes’ the flight from the palace thus: “Gautama lays himself down upon a magnificent couch. Immediately his women-servants, beautiful as goddesses, skilled in the dance, in song and in music, and decked with rich ! The earliest traditions represent Suddhodana as only one of the great and wealthy landowners of the Säkya race,—not asa king. Oldenberg’s Life, Hoey’s transl., pp. 99, 416; Rhys Davids, Hibbert Lect., p. 126; Copleston, Buddhism, p. 20. Apart from this, little that is certain is known about Buddha’s family circumstances; even the name of his wife Yasodharä, “ Rähula’s mother,’’ is reconstructed; conf. Rhys Davids, Buddhism, p. 50. ® Buddha’s birthplace has now been found ; see Oldenberg, Life of Buddha, Hoey’s transl., pp. 92, 105, 415; Jour. R. As. Soc., 1898, p. 580; and the critique mentioned above note 1, p. 9; G. Bühler, Anzeige Kk. Acad. Wiss. Wien, 1897, Ss. 319ff; Epig. Ind., vol. V, p.1; and conf. Or. Bibliog., Bd. XI, 1, 1898, S. 64, Nrs. 1257-8; 2, Ss. 218f., Nrs. 4129, 4149-52, &c. > Siddhartha of the Gautama gotra or priestly family. By caste he is described as a pure Kshattriya. * Rhys Davids’ Buddhist Birth Stories, pp. 80-82. IA THE BUDDHIST LEGEND. GAUTAMA THE ASCETIC. ornaments, ranged themselves in order and began to dance, sing, and play on their instruments to please him. But Gautama, whose mind was already turned away from the delights of the world, paid no heed to the dance and fell into a slumber. Then the women said: ‘What shall we play, when he for whose pleasure we perform is gone to sleep?’ Then they laid aside their instru- ments where they had taken them up, and lay down. Only the lamps, fed with fragrant oil, continued to burn. Then Gautama awoke, and leaning on his arm on the couch, he saw the women lying sleeping after they had flung aside their instruments. Spittle ran out of the mouths of some, others were grinding their teeth, others snoring, others again muttering in their sleep, or lying un- covered and with open mouths. This repulsive sight rendered him still more indifferent to the charms of sense. ‘Oh, horrible! dis- gusting!’ he cried, and thought seriously about adopting a life of solitude. Thereupon, with the words, ‘This is the day of separation from the world, he rose from his couch and went to the door, calling his charioteer. Before fleeing with Chhanna, he thought, ‘I will just look at my son,’ and rising, he went towards the apartments occupied by Rahula’s mother and entered her chamber. Rähula’s mother lay sleeping on a couch decked with flowers; her right hand resting on the head of the child. Gautama remained standing on the threshold and looked at them; he thought if he removed his wife’s hand he would wake her, and that thus his movements would be impeded; if he became Buddha he would come again and see his son; then he left the palace.” With Chhanna he fled in the night to the river Anoma or Anavamä; there he gave to the faithful coachman his weapons, his ornaments and his horse, exchanged clothes with a beggar, and, living on alms, hastened to Räjagrzha, the capital of the kingdom of Magadha. In Räjagriha he studies Brahman philosophy, but dissatisfied with this, he retires to the Uruvilvä (Pah, Uruvelä) forest, where the temple of Bud dha-Gay 4 now stands. There he submits to the severest privations, till he sees the folly of attempting to obtain enlightenment by ‘enfeebling the body. The legend proceeds to describe the mental struggles through which Gautama passed under the fig-tree at Gaya as a victory over creatures of a diabolical nature, which M Ara, “the Evil One,” the demon of passion, had sent against him. In a following chapter this struggle against Mära’s seductions will be more fully noticed. From the place where he obtained enlightenment, on the diamond throne (vajräsana), under the “tree of knowledge” (bodhr- druma), he hastened back to the world to proclaim the way of salvation—victory over self and love towards all creatures. First of all, he converts some merchants; then Brahmans and people of all ranks. From among those who were willing to follow him as disciples there arose by and by a body of monks (dhikshus), clad in yellow and shaven, who became the foundation for the later BUDDHA'S DEATH. THE THREE COUNGKHES: 15 monasticism. A Christian traveller of the 13th century, the Venetian Marco Polo, says of Buddha)! after narrating pretty correctly the story of his life: “If Buddha had been a Christian, he would have been a great saint of our Lord Jesus Christ, so good and pure was the life he led.” This is a significant judgment at a time when religious tolerance was certainly not great. During the forty-five years which Buddha journeyed about in Behar, we see him vigorously supported by the royal courts ; and his followers increasing; still Buddha’s doctrines do not yet seem to have been received as a separate religion. In the year 477 B.C. (probably), in the grove of the Malla princes at Kusinärä, he fell asleep, or as the ritual of his followers puts it, he entered Nirvana. His funeral was solemnized with great pomp, and the relics were distributed among the princes and cities of the district. Over these eight Stüpas were erected,—at Räjagriha, Vaisäli, Kapilavastu, Allakappa, Rämagräma, Veihadipa, Pävä, and Kusinärä, besides the shrines erected by Drona and the Mauryas.” But though the princes of Magadha and Kosala (Audh) may have taken a personal interest in the Buddha, they did not adopt his doctrines as their private religion in supercession of the Brahman state-religion. It was only in later times that a closer organization appeared among the numerous followers of Buddha. After the death of the Master, a council was held in the Sataparmza (Pali, Sattapanni) cave of the Vaibhära hill at Rajagrzha, which was prepared for the meeting by king Ajäta- satru of Magadha. The task devolving upon this council was to fix authoritatively the words of the Master gone into Nirväna. About a century later there is said to have been a second council, held at Vaisali to suppress the heresies that had appeared in ‘the community ; but the fact of such a council is doubtful. In the hundred and thirty years between the second and third councils, there had been great political changes. Alexander the Great had invaded the Panjab; the Magadha state (the Prachya, “Easterns,” Greek, Prasioi) had attained a dominating position ; the old dynasty had been overturned by an upstart, and Chandragupta (Gr. Sandrakottos or Sandrakyptos) had taken possession of the throne of Magadha. Neither Chandragupta nor his successor Bindusära adopted the Buddhist doctrines, the force and authority of which had already created for them an independent position. Asoka (B.C. 264-222) —in his inscriptions called Piyadasi,—the third king of the new dynasty known as the Maurya (Pali, Mora), was the first patron of the religion, which he publicly acknowledged. He was the founder of numerous monasteries (vzhdras) and other ecclesiastical 1Yule’s Marco Polo, vol. II, p. 300. > Kern, Manual of Buddhism, p. 46; Rockhill, Life of the Buddha, pp. 145-147 ; Rhys Davids, Buddhist Suttas, S.B.E., vol. XI, pp. 131-132. 16 ASOKA’S EDICTS. buildings ; the sacred texts testify in extravagant terms to the king’s zeal for the faith. He is said to have had 84,000 stüpas erected in different parts of his wide realm ; and to have gifted his whole kingdom to Buddha’s followers several times, receiving it from them again. But the most striking witnesses to his zeal for Buddha’s doctrines are his edicts. These documents, which are unique among the inscriptions of antiquity, relate that Piyadasi, the king “beloved of the gods,” interested himself in the faith and its professors, that he endeavoured to establish the sacred tradition, that he had roads, wells, and hospitals made for the use of all living creatures. The only historical inscriptions of Western Asia which are akin to the Indian, both as regards the sense and the form, are those left by the Achamenides, especially by Darius. The largest, and for our purpose the most valuable, is the inscription of Bagistän (Behistun). The simple language which expresses unreserved sincerity, the truly regal tone of the style, which avoids floridness, simply relates the facts, and does not pass over the names of the leaders who fought the battles,—are significant of the noble charac- ter of him who founded anew the Persian empire. The punishment to which he condemns the rebels “because they have lied,’ may be called humane compared with the barbarities of the Assyrians and other so-called civilized peoples. Now the inscriptions of Asoka may have some connexion with those of the Achzemenides. This appears most strikingly in the form of the language itself. The idioms of the Persians and Indian Aryans were, even until the days of the Achzmenides, nearly allied dialectically: it cannot have been very difficult for these peoples, to some extent, to understand each other directly. The royal inscriptions of the Persians show us language still struggling for expression; everything is still fresh and new. But Asoka’s inscriptions, though differing somewhat dialectically from one another, show everywhere the same courtly style (closely allied to the Persian) which is to be remarked especially in the formulating of the introductory sentences, the arrangement of the titles, and so on. It was necessary to mention this fact, for it has a decided connection with other things which intimately concern us.? No important monument among those preserved in India is anterior to the time of king Asoka. All that have been preserved show undoubted Persian influence in their style. It has been declared, with reason, that stone-building on a large scale was first executed in India in Asoka’s time: the criticisms of Indian 1 Conf. Senart, Jour. Asiat., 8me ser. t. V. (1885) pp. 269ff ; or Inser. de Piyadasi, t. IL, pp. 219ff. 2 The Asoka edicts are found on rocks at Girnär in Gujarat, Shähbäzgarhi in Yüsufzai, at Mänsahri, at Kälsi, at Dhauli in Orissa, Jaugada in Gänjäm, and in Maisur, — also on pillars at Dehli, Allahäbäd, Rädhia, Mäthia, and Rämpürva. See Epigraphia Indica, vol. II, pp. 245ff; Arch. Sur, S. Ind.: Amardvati, vol. 1, pp. 114ff, &c. PERSIAN STYEE: PERSIAN PILLAR: 17 patriotism can alter nothing as to this fact.1 The Persian style, which the Achemenides employed in their buildings at Susa and Persepolis, has inherited West Asian forms in its constructive as well as in its decorative features. This Persian style, which NAAN Te 1. HALL WITH PERSO-INDIAN COLUMNS, REPRESENTING A FLOOR IN A GREAT PALACE: FROM THE RIGHT JAMB OF THE “East GATEWAY AT SANCHi. shows many peculiarities, is unfortunately represented only by a few monuments upon which it is almost impossible to pronounce judgment. But undoubtedly its elements may again be recognised in the buildings of Asoka’s day and of the older Indian style, dependent on that of Asoka, as grafted upon the native wooden style. & chief elements, so far as the Buddhist sculptures are con- cerned, the following forms may be indicated :—The Persian pillar with bell-shaped capital was adopted directly ; it was set up by itself as an inscription-pillar; the famous iron pillar of Dehli is alater example. In sculptures it is seen not only in represent- ations of palace-halls, but also decoratively,—often to divide spaces, and with many interesting variants. The bell-capital frequently serves as a basis for one or more lions or elephants, or for a religious symbol (e.g. the wheel) when the pillar is considered as standing alone. If the pillar is used as a support in a building, the bell-capital serves as base for an abacus on which, turned towards 1 Fergusson, Archeology in India, pp.9, 18, 16ff.; Ind. and East. Archit., pp.47-49. 18 WINGED ANIMALS. KINNARAS. the sides, winged figures of animals (winged horses, gazelles, goats, lions, or sitting elephants) are placed. This last form re- sembles the Persian “unicorn-pillar.” The appearance of the whole pillar in India, however, is rough and clumsy compared with Persian forms.’ Orientalised animals play an important part in Buddhist art. All these hybrid creatures and winged figures—besides their purely decorative röle—have been employed in representing the inferior mythical beings of the native mythology. Still it is uncommonly difficult, as will be explained more fully below, to find Indian names for these hybrid forms, in the formation and employment of which great inconstancy and some misconceptions are noticeable. It may be supposed that if the West Asian forms had not been preserved, this inconstancy in the shapes, this careful fashioning of extraordinary creatures of the imagination, to which names cannot be given, must point likewise to foreign influences. It is interesting that, even in Asoka’s time, alongside these purely hither Asian forms, some also ap- peared sporadically which can only be of Greek origin.” The representation of divine beings under purely human forms is a feature of native art that is opposed to these foreign influences on ancient Buddhist art; and a marked contrast to the chimeras (Kinnaras) of West Asia is presented by the native animal world, which is not so fre- quently met with decoratively, but leaves this röle to the foreign forms. With exceptions we shall meet with in a later chapter, the wings of the Oriental animals are mostly at rest and devoid of signifi- 2. WINGED LIONS FROM THE SECOND CROSS- BEAM OF THE HAST GATEWAY AT SANCHi. _ " Conf. Cunningham, Arch. Sur. Ind. Rep., vol. V. pll. xlv, xlvi, pp. 187, 188; and interesting capitals with such creatures in Burgess, Arch@ol. Sur. W. Ind., vol. 1V, pp. 5, 12; and Cave Temples, pll. xvi, xxili, xevi. 2 The reader is reminded of the centaurs at Gayi; Räjendraläl Mitra’s Buddha- Gayd, pl. xlv, fig. 12. Centaurs are also found at a later date when the Gandhara influence appears more distinctly, and it is then impossible to prove whence they arose; Epig. Ind., vol. II, p. 314, pl. ii, fig. 6. The aprons that strike one are doubt- less to be regarded as leaves, and have a noteworthy parallel in the relief in the British Museum, Jour. Ind. Art and Industry, vol. VIII (1898), pl. xvii, 1, or sep. ed., pl. xv, 1, and p. 16. The Jaina relief is also a companion piece to ill. 23. East Asian tradition, which represents the Tiryagyonis as centaurs, proves that the human-faced oxen on the Jaina relief indicate the centaurs as representations of the animal kingdom in the Saüsära. CONVENTIONAL: PLANTS: -LOTUS PATTERN. 19 cance ;ı the most remarkable are those in the lion group of the applied plaques of the first and second architraves of the east gate- way of the large stüpa at Sadfichi, as will be shewn at the end of the second chapter. Along with representations of mythical plants, which may be traced to the Assyrian tree of life, and to which is attached a series of symbols difficult to explain, appears the native plant-world. A detailed description of the dharma symbols,? &c., which belong to the first type, would con- . tribute little to the history of art; the second class is of more value. ‘The Indian - plant-world, notwithstand- ing simple and sometimes even rough modelling, is reproduced with. astonish- ing fidelity to nature. A favourite subject is the lotus-flower (Padma, Nelumbium — speciosum), which is employed decor- atively and with great taste in the arrangement. Here and there West Asian (Egyptianised) lotus flow- ers and palms have crept into designs of this cate- gory, which are remarkable for the richness of their device (fig. 3). The broad disc of the full-blown flower : 5 I N is employed in all positions N A asa decoration and, owing Sy og RI UN to its resemblance to the N, ey Ge ji wheel,is a favourite subject. DE OW IE, Asi i er! a 3. Lorus FLOWER DECORATION FROM art, which cuts the pe THE OUTER SIDE OF THE PILLARS OF THE ment through, like wall- EAST GATEWAY OF THE GREAT STÜPA paper, where the wall to be AT SANCHi. decorated ends, the flower lying under the capital in fig. 3 is turned upwards. In spite of the predominantly picturesque character of the pattern, this preference 1 Originally the wings were only externally attached symbols of speed. Conf. on this point the notes in the Festschrift für Prof.Veth, Leiden, pp. 222 and 224, note 3. A group of these winged creatures (horned lions, the so-called ki-lin, &e.) have been faith- fully preserved in the art of eastern Asia. ‘The wings are, however, represented as flames. 2 W.Simpson, The Buddhist Praying-Wheel, Lond. 1896, p. 15, note 2; Goblet d’Alviella, Migration des Symboles, 1891, pp. 294ff; conf, also G, Bühler, Epig. Ind., vol. II, p. 312, 20 THE DIFFERENT CLASSES OF MONUMENTS. for accommodation to the ornamental design is noteworthy. The Hindu sculptor does not care for purely geometrical designs, and so we frequently find creepers with aquatic birds, &c., which, on a smaller scale, fill in the spaces, and are rich and animatcd with fine observation of nature. The two outer sides of the east gateway at Sänchi are a good example of this. While on the left side the design is carried out as geometrically as is permitted in Indian art, the creeper on the right side is full of life. Birds flit about among the flowers; and the plant itself grows from the jaws of a sea-monster. The part which flowers play in later Buddhist art is an important one, yet the finest motifs belong to this older period ; flowering creepers hung up in holy places may have provided the models. In the main it may be said that these plants, represented in simple lines, with the native animals that animate them—both of which have received purely native modelling—mostly surpass what the celebrated Greek art was able to command: they rest upon a faith- ful observation of nature. The ancient Buddhist monuments may be divided into five groups, according to their object :—! 1. Stambhas (Pali, Thambhas; Hindüstäni, Lats), pillars on whose capital a religious symbol, as the Wheel or dharma-symbol, is represented, usually on a group of lions or elephants. They were probably always erected in connexion with Viharas or Chaityas, and served for inscriptions. Some of the finest Buddhist La¢s were erected by Asoka and bear his edicts. When the capital was sur- mounted by a lion, the pillar was called a Simhastambha (Pali, Sihatthambo). Compare the copy on the small middle pillars (be- tween the architraves) of the east gateway at Sänchi (fig. 36). 2. Stipa (Pali, Thupo; Anglo-Indian “tope”) applies to any mound, as a funeral pile or tumulus; and hence to domical struc- tures over sacred relics of Buddha or other Sthavira or saint, or as memorials on spots consecrated by some remarkable event in Buddha’s life. When they preserved relics, the shrine in which these were kept was the Dhätugarbha (Pali, Dhdtugabbho; Singhalese, Dägaba; Japanese, 76); and as most Stüpas were erected over relics (dhätu), the whole structure came to be called a Dägaba. A stüpa consists of a circular or square base.support- ing a dome (garbha), on which stands a square block or neck (gala) representing a box to hold a relic, crowned by a capital consisting of a number of flat tiles. Above this is the umbrella or spire (chidamani—Burmese, ht/)—single or with several roofs. usually three, over one another. 3. Chaityas (Pali, Chetiya). Like Stipa, the word Chaitya? is applied to a monument or cenotaph, and in a secondary sense to a temple or shrine containing a Chaitya or Dhätugarbha. Chaityas 1 Conf. Fergusson, Ind. and East. Architecture, p. 50. 2 In Nepal and Tibet (chaitya—Tib. mChod.rten, pronounced Chhor.ten) the word is used in the sense of stüpa (dhätugarbha=Tib,. mDun.rten). Conf. Burgess, Cave Temples, p. 174, CLASSES OF MONUMENTS. LOCALITIES. al or Dägabas are an essential feature of temples or chapels con- structed for purposes of worship, there being a passage round the Chaitya for circumambulation (pradakshinaya), and from these such temples have received their appellation. The name of Chaitya, however, applies not only to sanctuaries, but to sacred trees, holy spots, or other religious monuments.' 4. Vihäras were monasteries for the accommodation of monks living together in communities, and were mostly, if not always, connected with Chaityas. 5. Ornamental Rails (suchaka) were mostly employed as the enclosures of stüpas, or to surround a terrace on which stood a sacred tree, &c. The stone railings are among the most important monuments in the representation of Indian sculpture, as most of them are ornamented with reliefs on the upright shafts and transoms (suchz) or cross-bars. In some places great stone gates (torazas) are connected with the railings. These gates—the best preserved are those at Saficht—are mostly richly adorned with sculptured scenes. They show the stereotyped wooden style not only in the decoration but also in the form of the building. They seem to have been introduced into farther Asia very early ; at any rate the well-known Chinese faz-/us and the Japanese Zori-is are to be connected with these ancient torazas. Originally they were, no doubt, somewhat like our triumphal arches.’ 4. REPRESENTATION OF A STUPA: GODS AND MEN BEFORE IT. From the east gateway of the great stüpa at Säächt. Now the monuments, the sculptures of which show the principal phases of ancient Indian art, are divided into two large groups. The older, and properly Indian group, in which Persian influence 1 Conf. Jour. As. Soc. Beng. vol. VII, p. 1001. 2 Fergusson and Burgess, Cave Temples, pp. 171-177; Goblet d’Alviella, Ce que U Inde doit a la Grece, pp. 44-48. 22 REMAINING MONUMENTS. appears, begins in Asoka’s time; to it belong the monuments in India proper; läfs at Dehli, Tirhut, Sankisa, Sanchi, etc.; chaitya-caves and vihäras in Bihär, at Nasik, Ajan/ä, Elura, Karle, KAazhéri, Bhaja, Béadsa, Dhamnar, at Udayagiri near Kafak, Bagh, etc.; stüpas of Mänikyäla, Sarnath, SAficht, and Amarävat!: stone railings with gates at Barähat LL IB BE Peshanard- each 5. Sketch Map oF INDIA WITH THE NAMES OF THE PRINCIPAL SITES OF THE BUDDHIST PERIOD. (Bharhut or Bharaut), Mathura, Gaya, Sähchi, and Amar A- vati. The second group, the so-called Greeco-Buddhist, or rather, as Fergusson first called it, that of the Gandhara monasteries, GANDHARA, UDAYAGIRI, BARAHAT, GAYA. 28 embraces the numerous remains of the monasteries of Jamäl-- garhi, Takht-i-Bähi, Shahdéhri, Sanghäo, Natthu in Yüsufzäi, and at Loriyän Tangai and other localities in the Swat territory. An older branch perhaps precedes it,—the Indo-Hellenic school, Smith styles it,—which is represented chiefly by sculptures from Mathura. While in the older Indian group the native element forms the groundwork, and so is developed farther on the soil of India, the Gandhära school presents strange antique forms. Later it influences Indian art, but, from geographical and other reasons which con- tributed also to the splitting of Buddhism into two schools, it remains isolated and is thenceforward most permanent in the ecclesiastical art of the northern or Mahayana school. Among the oldest sculptures of India are perhaps those of the caves of Udayagiri in the Puri district of Orissa. The most interesting are in the two-storeyed Räj-Räni or Räni-ka Nar caves. These remarkable reliefs show an uncommonly animated style, little influenced by foreign elements." They form, so to speak, the primitive basis from which issued the purified and refined forms of later times. In general, the ruins of the richly ornamented stone-railing and of the gates of the stüpa at Barähat (Bharhut), which has now all but completely vanished from the spot, show on their reliefs the same style as the sculptures of the Safchi gates de- scribed below, though they are somewhat harsh in form; this is most apparent where women are represented. The distorted exaggerations of the female figures, and the fondness for the nude are seen on the Säncht reliefs; in Barähat scarcely anything of this is to be remarked. The sculptures of Barähat are of special value, inasmuch as all the representations are accompanied by inscriptions, and so can easily be explained. Most of the pillars from the south and east gateways and the connecting rail were removed to the India Museum in Calcutta, and only a few frag- ments left 7» stu. The ruins which, when found, had been terribly destroyed, date from about the first half of the second century B.C. The sculpture of the earlier stone-railing at Gaya (Buddha- gaya) are somewhat later than those at Barähat, and are no doubt to be traced back to Asoka. In ancient times it enclosed a terrace, on which the bod. hi-tree—the fig-tree under which Gautama obtained enlightenment—stood, apparently in a sort of chapel. The temple at Gaya is of much later date: it was built by Amaradeva in the fifth century A.D., restored by the Burmese 1 Fergusson, Archaeology in India, p. 42; Cave Temples, pp. 77-86, 94. 2 Fergusson, Ind. and East. Architecture, pp. 85-91; Cunningham, Bharhut Stüpa (1879) ; Le Bon, Monum. de l’ Inde, pp. 52-55. Bharhut lies to the 8.S.W. of Alla- häbäd, about 200 miles E.N.E. from Sänchi, and 160 W.S,W. from Banaras, near to the railway. The remains of the stüpa there were reported to Gen. Cunningham by a native in 1873, and excavated by him in Feb. 1874. 24 SANCHI. in 1306-9, and again, it lately underwent a renovation at the hands of the Bengal Government, that must be regretted. Some fine panels from the old Asoka railing seem to have found their way to the Berlin Museum. L 7 HEE! 6. PLAN AND RESTORED ELEVATION OF THE GREAT STÜPA AT SÄNCH!. At Sänchi, or SAficht-Kanakeda, about twenty miles N.E. of the capital of Bhopal, and S.W. from Bhilsä, the ancient Vidisa, there was a group of ancient stüpas and other religious sANCHI. 25 buildings. Till about 1820 the largest and second stüpas, with a third, were stili entire. The place was first seen by Colonel Taylor and then by Captain E. Fell and Dr. Yeld in 1818. Soon after, Mr. H. Maddock got permission from the native government to dig into the stüpas, and by December 1822, Captain Johnson, the Agent’s assistant, had opened the largest to its foundations. This carelessly conducted search for supposed treasure did immense damage to the structure of three stüpas and hastened the dilapi- dation of their enclosures, while no discovery compensated in any way for the destruction. They were again further opened up by Major A. Cunningham and Capt. F. C. Maisey in 1851, when several relic caskets were found.’ The largest stüpa is surrounded by a massive stone railing ; access to the space inside the railing is afforded by four lofty gate- ways of fine grained sandstone facing the four points of the compass. ‘This stüpa is a massive, solid brick and stone building of 121 feet in diameter and about 533 feet high ; the dome rises from a plinth 14 feet high, standing out 54 feet from its circumference. On the top of the building was a terrace 34 feet in diameter, en- closed by a stone-railing (cf. plan and sketch, fig. 6). The ascent to the ramp which surrounds the building was reached by a double stair on the south side. The whole structure is surrounded by a massive colonnade measuring 144 feet from west to east and 151 feet from north to south. In this way the space on the south side of the terrace, where the steps are, is broader. The encircling rail shows numerous inscriptions, but no sculpture on the frieze or coping. On the other hand, the figured work of the four great gateways is particularly rich. At the instigation of Mr. Fergusson,? a cast of the eastern gateway was made in 1869 and copies of it are in the Museums of Science and Art at S. Kensington, Edinburgh and Dublin, in the Royal Museum at Berlin, at Paris, &c. The inscriptions on the railings of both the two existing stüpas are short but very numerous. Unfortunately, they contain scarcely any indication by help of which a date might be inferred. But the great majority of them are in the form of alphabet which goes back to the time of Asoka (B.C. 250) and which had altered for some time before the Christian era.” It seems most probable then 1 Jour. A. S. Ben., vol. III, pp. 488-494; vol. IV, p. 712; also vol. VI, pp. 451ff ; vol. XVI, pp. 744ff; Cunningham, Bhilsa Topes, pp. x, 183, 269f. 275, 285f.; Fer- gusson, Tree and Serp. Wor. p. 96; Picturesque Illust. of Anc. Archit. pp. 21, 22; Ind. and East. Arch. pp. 60-75, 92-99; and Maisey, Sdnchi and its Remains. 2 The first half of Fergusson’s Tree and Serpent Worship (1868, 2d ed. 1873) was devoted to the illustration of the Sifichi Topes or Stüpas, from the drawings of Colonel Maisey, and a few photographs. A complete photographic representation of all the sculptures is required adequately to illustrate the monument. 3 Epigraphia Indica, vol. II, pp. 88, 89. An inscription on the representation of a stüpa on the south gateway, mentions that the block “ was the gift of Ananda, the son of Vasishtha, in the reign of Sri Sätakarni.” Among the Andhra kings there were several bearing this name, one of whom seems to have ruled over the Dakhan about 150 B.c. 26 SANCHi. AMARAVATH. that the gateways were erected in the second century before the Christian era. Stress may also be laid on the fact that the south gate, to judge from the style, is apparently the oldest. For different reasons it is probable that it was Asoka who erected the stüpa. The Singhalese chronicle, the Mahävansa, relates that Asoka, when he was sent by his father as regent to Ujjayini (Ujjain), made a stay of some time at Chetiyagiri or Vessanagara (Bes- nagar near Bhilsä) There he married the daughter of a prince, and had by her two sons, Ujjeniya and Mahinda, and after- wards a daughter, Sanghamitta. The two last took orders, and at the behest of their royal father went to Ceylon at the invitation of King Tissa, to take thither a shoot of the sacred bodhi-tree and to spread Buddhism in the island. Before their departure for Ceylon they were received by the princess their mother, who visited them at Chetiyagiri, in a hall built by herself. Now before the south gate there stood a La/ (with lion capital), of which a fragment still remains, bearing part of an inscription—apparently of an edict of Asoka,’—from which it follows that the erection of the great stüpa belongs to Asoka’s time, about 250 B.C.: the commencement of the rail followed very soon after; and the erection of the south gateway, about or before 150 B.C. According to their probable age, the gateways stand in the following order—the southern, the northern, the eastern, the western. As the reliefs of the gateways exhibit the most extensive monu- ment of older Buddhist sculpture, and in general represent the Asoka style, the character of this style will be described in more detail in the following chapter. For the reliefs of the east gate see the end of Chapter II. The great Stipa of Amarävati, on the right or south bank of the lower Krishaa river, about twenty miles above Bejwada, was first heard of by Colonel Colin Mackenzie in 1797. It was then being removed by the local chief to be used for building purposes. Mackenzie paid a prolonged visit to it in 1816 and again in the end of 1819, and made many careful drawings from the slabs of the railing and of those that had been round the base of the stüpa. Many sculptures had then been destroyed, but a few were secured by Mackenzie and sent to Madras and Calcutta. Further excavations were made in 1845 by Sir W. Elliott, and the sculptures recovered are now in the British Museum. The Madras Government excavated the whole area in 1881, and a large number of the sculptures then recovered were sent to the Madras Museum. The Amarävati stüpa appears to have been deserted in the seventh century, when Hiwen Tsiang visited the district. The short inscriptions found range over a considerable period, and there were evidently enlargements and reconstructions; but the discovery of an epigraph of Pu/umäyi—an Andhra king of the second century A.D., and the reported association of Nägärjuna's name 1 Epig, Ind., vol. II, p. 367. AMARAVATi. EARLY SCHOOL OF PAINTING. 5% with the creation of the rail, combined with other indications, point to the second century A.D. as the period when most of the sculptures were executed and the work completed. It is due to Fergusson’s ingenuity that the railing, adorned with richly com- posed reliefs, of which the pieces were completely dissevered, has been so far reconstructed that we have a picture of the whole.' The Amarävati railing thus belongs apparently to the second century A.D.; the stüpa itself was older. The style of the sculpture on the railings had its origin in that ofthe Asoka period, but it has an entirely new kind of formation. The types are all closely pre- served; but in the representation of the single figures, as in the composition, other laws prevailed. It will suffice, however, to indicate below some striking points in which the style of this older period—as Fergusson was the first to show—exerted an influence upon the reliefs of Amarävati. Asto the further development of the elements which Amarävati has in common with Sänchi, and so on, it will suffice to notice that a certain coquettish elegance, an over-luxuriance of the compositions, is the characteristic feature. ech 11US7,8,, 20, Cec.) The paintings of the cave-temples of Ajazta, N.N.W. of the town of the same name in the Indhyädri Hills which form the boundary between the Dekhan and Khandesh, do not fall quite within the scope of this book, and the reader is referred therefore to the literary works indicated in the bibliography for what concerns the history of the discovery as well as the artistic character of these specimens of ancient Indian paintings, so im- portant’ to Indian archeology. Fergusson conjectured that, besides the Gandhära school of sculpture, an early school of painting existed in Gandhära: how far what is established in the third chapter as to the survival of Gandhära types in the ecclesiastical paintings of Tibet, China and Japan, is calculated to support this undoubtedly correct conjecture of Fergusson, will no doubt be seen when our knowledge of the latter has been assured. Now the frescoes of Ajantä and Bagh are also connected with these ancient ecclesiastical paintings animated by antique elements. It is only necessary to refer occasionally to an Ajanta representation where it seems of value for the history of a type. The uncommon beauty and grace of these pictures,—the sad fate of which I need not dwell on here,—was made evident by the outline drawings which Dr. J. Burgess incorporated in his account of the pictures (Bombay, 1879). ‘The recent splendid publication of the Aja»fä pictures by Mr. Griffiths has made them access- ible in a worthy form. 1 The materials acquired have been utilized in the second half of Fergusson’s Tree and Serpent Worship and in the volume of the Archeological Survey of 8. India on the Amardvati and Jaggayyapeta Stüpas. 7. A CHIEF SEATED ON A THRONE, TALKING WITH ASCETICS: FROM SWAT. CHAPTER I. VEIRTERRLYETINDERN SEYLE. The form of art which was, and remained, national in India, and which constantly influenced the stone-architecture was wood- carving. The stone gates at Sachi, for example, are copied from wooden ones, which perhaps originally stood there; the general construction as well as the detail show this most clearly. The same stylistic features of the gates are met with, on a smaller scale;..also. in the throne-seats-in.reliefs of a still earlier period. Thus, among other things, some examples of thrones with backs are preserved on the reliefs of the stone railings of Amaravati, which represent the old Aryan native style in a quite distinctive manner. It is astonishing how intimately related these forms are to those of the Middle Ages, especially those of the north (conf. figs. 7,8). The transoms of the broad low support are worked at the ends so as to project, and the ends themselves are ornamented with fantastic animals’ heads (heads of dragons). On the relief from Amarävati (shown in fig. 31) the Toraza appears to be treated similarly—so far as the architrave is concerned—but the representations are not quite distinct enough. ‘The interstices are adorned with reliefs and little round figures. The West Asian animal forms that are here introduced will be treated more in detail below (conf. figs. 28 and 29). 1 As the examples of this style are all within the limits of India proper, I prefer this term to “ Perso-Indian” employed by Prof. Grünwedel.—J.B. WOOD-CARVING. THRONE-SEATS. 29 At the present day wood-carving is still preserved in rustic forms—the characteristic feature of the national life of ancient India, as of the life of modern times, being the peasant class— although these purely archaic forms, reminding one of German compositions of the Middle Ages, have been lost. As in ancient Buddhist sculpture, the carved-wood style reappeared in India at a 3 if m. gi y ET WHE x NE g\. Fe BR ; N : / = ai Ne vies 8. THRONE SUPPORTING A SMALL STUPA, WORSHIPPED BY NAGAS. On a slab from Amarävati. Fergusson, Tree and Serp. Wor., pl. 1xil. later period in the sacred buildings of the Jains under the Chalukya rulers of the Middle Ages. These buildings were executed in stone (white marble), and the fine lace-like interwoven work that forms the decoration of the buildings on Mount Abu and in other Jaina temples in Western India had then its origin. How these Jaina buildings, in turn,—with the omission of the figure elements— became the models for the trellis and stone filigree work of the Muhammadans in their buildings at Ahmadabad and elsewhere belongs to a different chapter of Indian art. We see then, that early Indian sculpture had an auxiliary in an ancient, indigenous, and deeply rooted branch of art: though. it is true it was only in the hands of an artizan class. When working in stone began it was 30 INFLUENCE OF WOOD-CARVING. an aid in modelling, but an obstacle in the way of development. It is the wood-carving style, above all, which is to blame for the fact that Indian sculpture never became more than a rc/zevo serving for the decoration of large buildings,—so much so, indeed, that the buildings executed in stone appear overlaid with carved mouldings. The ornamental relief only seldom, and as if by chance, attains organic completeness; even in ancient Buddhist art a certain irregularity is indulged. in—a constant varying of the panels employed decoratively, for the normal architectural development of which there is no hard and fast rule. It is therefore, as we shall see, very difficult to insist upon the points which, according to the design of the sculptor, should be emphasized. (Cf. illus. 36). And, further, “there are "no. ‚separate figures in Buddhist art: for even when figures are executed alone they are never represented without an aureole, never without attend- ant accessory figures, and never ‚without a wall behind to form a solid background to the figure. This fact bears a certain relation to the Indian conception of the universe—the constant merging of historical persons in a system, the limited freedom of the indi- vidual with regard to the world surrounding him, and which is considered essentially from a re- ligious standpoint, even the very idea of the identity of individual souls with the Universal Soul: it is to this that their incapacity is owing to attain a really artistic conception which could have de- veloped the independent figure. A second branch of Indian art, — more delicate in form, and, by reason of the allusions to models in nature, apparently more produc- tive,—was intimately connected, and that from very early times, with the popular ideas: this was the art of the goldsmith. 1So Cunningham, Bharhut, pl. xliii. The inscriptions designate the two repre- sentations as Isimiga Jdtaka and Miga samadaka chetaya,—“the rebirth as Rishi Antelope,” and “the antelope enjoying chaitya.” Conf. Hultzsch, ‘ Bharhut Inschriften’ in Zeit. d. Morg. Ges., Bd. XL., Ss. 58-76, Nrs. 10, 11. re = 2 RELIEF WITH REPRESENTATION OF THE ISIMIGA JATAKA, LIONS AND ANTELOPES BEFORE EURE Kr, an A a, C 00 ok O oO EN: RL > 27 ail (gies =p ll IN va THE SACRED TREE, &e.! ror) GOLDSMITH’S ART. INDIAN JEWELLERY. Sl Its influence is confirmed in two directions. The sculptures show how the decorative element in goldsmiths’ work—often nearly resembling basket-work—everywhere aids in the devising of those chains and other ornaments, with flowers, leaves, rosettes, and finely linked bands, found along with panels which are adorned with figure compositions. The lower decorative lines on fig. 9 present patterns borrowed from ornaments: little bells and chains such as are worn by women for the feet. For the separation ofthe different representations inthe central belt the tendrils of plants are employed, from which ornaments grow out: the representation of the “Wishing tree” (Aalpavriksha), which at a later date becomes common, springs from this ornamental form. But the goldsmith’s art has had a fatal effect on the modelling of the human figure. The heroic form of Indian sculptured figures has been, and at all times remained the same,—they are decked as for gala occasions. This form has been preserved with unalterable tenacity through the whole history of Indian art, and even in neighbouring countries. The old, partly ancient Aryan, forms of festal ornaments passed, along with the Aryan colonists, beyond the limits of India, in manifold varieties in accordance with the peculiar style of the particular country; in Burma and Siam, Tibet and Mongolia, Java and Bali, the modified forms of ancient Indian gala ornaments are still to be found in the gala costume of the kings, or of brides and bridegrooms, or, finally, in the costumes of the theatres which everywhere represent subjects . taken from the ancient Indian legends. It is a surprising fact that the non-Aryan districts of India, or the lower castes in the old civilised parts, like the above-named countries outside India, fre- quently now show more antique forms of articles of jewellery than the ancient civilised kingdoms of India itself, since in the course of time the latter adopted other fashions in costume and ornament. The whole question deserves special and detailed examination in which the monuments of antiquity should play a prominent part. At present I must content myself with suggestions. The ornaments are uncommonly rich and tastefully arranged, whilst they also in themselves form an artistic motif. The ancient Buddhist plastic art never deteriorated into the rough, monotonous and mechanical sort of style in which the so-called Assyrian art covers its figures with ornaments and garments in rich patterns. But on the other hand the ornament, in the pain- fully careful execution it received, hindered very considerably the development of the human figure, since it always retained the conventional type for the forms. Here, too, it is to be observed, that tropical Nature has exercised its influence in India; for the very names of articles of jewellery in all Indian tongues clearly prove the most part of them to be imitations of the splendid blossoms and creepers which the flora of this lovely land holds out to man for his adornment on festive occasions. From ancient 32 ORNAMENT A HINDRANCE TO PLASTIC ART. literature we clearly learn, for example, that the same flowers served directly for adorning the hair which, at the present day, have given their names to the corresponding metal ornaments. Thus we read in the Rıfusamhära (‘Description of the seasons’), ii. 21: “Now (in the rainy season) the women wear on their heads garlands of Kadamba, Kesara, and Ketaki, and ear orna- ments of Kakubha-umbels, which, being thrust into the earlap hang down over its edge.” These floral adornments varied accord- ing to the seasons. With regard to the names mentioned it may here be noted that even at the present day a broad ornamental plate in the shape of a pandanus-blossom is quite commonly worn as a head-ornament. It bears the same name: Hindi, Aetaki; Marathi, Keord; Malayälam, Kerdappi; &c. Even along with metal ornaments, flowers assert their rights: the Tamil women when in gala costume, along with metal ear-ornaments and orna- “mental plates on their heads, wear a cluster of single yellow or white flowers strung together by means of threads, and hung from ‘their ears, &c., &c. Among the lower castes similar articles— perhaps imitations—woven of grass and straw, with festoons and chains made of nuts and bright coloured seeds, are still to be seen side by side with metal ornaments. However pleasing and charming this joy in Nature may appear, the reproduction of these articles of adornment had an unfortunate artistic influence with.respect to modelling. The shoulders loaded with broad chains, the arms and legs covered with metal rings, the bodies encircled with richly linked girdles, could never have at- tained an anatomically correct form. Everywhere the carrying out of a clear outline was interfered with by broad ornamental lines, rich and tasteful in themselves, disturbing the natural position of: the muscles of the leg and arm, and, in consequence, the limbs have received at the best, an effeminate seemingly correct finish; but at the worst, they have been subjected to a complete distortion of the skeleton, whilst the muscles stand unduly out. Connected with this overloading with ornament, certain physical peculiarities which accompany the wearing of heavy ornament are regarded as beauties and are still further exaggerated in the copies. This is especially due to the wearing of large and heavy ornaments. This, again, is in keeping with the fact that the types on the monuments, e.g. illust. 8, 14, 22, bear a greater resemblance to certain ornaments of the Aryan races than. those worn by the women of the early civilized territory at the present day. The great metal, wood, or horn discs (Mal., takka; Tamil, takker) of the Nayarchchi of Malabar, the extended ear-lobes of the Mara- vatti, &c., are well known.” 1 These in order are :—Nauclea kadamba, Mimusops elengi, Pandanus odoratissimus, Pentaptera arjuna. 2 No indicate to the reader what stress is laid on this perception of beauty in the Indian mind, it may be noted that, among the beneficent acts (Tam. aram) enumerated by Tamil moralists, besides digging wells, building hospitals, feeding Brahmans, REPRESENTATION OF THE HUMAN FIGURE. 33 Out of this emphasizing of ornament came the treatment of the nude. The naked body, as such, was never an object of represent- ation in Buddhist art. Apart from the fact that nudity is repugnant to Buddha’s doctrine, the peculiar ideas of the Hindus as to the purpose of the human body is to be taken into account; the human form is at best a part of Nature itself, the ephemeral garment of the soul, in which the latter lingers against its will. It is important to remember here what ideas were not accepted by the Hindus. Man never appears as the lord of Nature, which was there just to serve him: never is he regarded as the crown of creation. Re- incarnation into the world of human beings is only desirable inas- much as that alone makes redemption—final escape—possible. With this may be connected the fact that no general interest is taken in the symmetrical training of the body. Physical exercise is not unknown in India, but its ends are professional, not esthetic. Physical beauty. appears as the result of good works in former births: not as that of individual energy and pleasure in life; it is a gift of Nature and transient as the tropical flowers. It is quite true that, in India, people wore, and still wear, as light clothing as was worn in ancient Greece, and bare limbs are common. Physic- ally, too, the Hindu differs from the ancient Greek. With his delicate and supple-jointed limbs, miserable calves and feeble muscles, the Hindu was in early times, as the ancient Buddhist sculptures show, the very same lightly-built, slippery, eel-like creature that he is to-day. On the whole, it may be said that ancient Buddhist art has represented the Hindu excellently, with an agreeable childlike naturalism which, notwithstanding the graceful moulding, is far from idealising. As strict training was ‚unknown, a refinement soon appears which is seen chiefly in the representations of women, and becomes by and by baroque or rococo in style. With this conception of the human form agrees the circumstance that even at an early date an interest in por- traiture, at least in national portraits—if one may be allowed the expression—is evinced. The different peoples that lived side by side in India were distinguished from one another above all physically : contact with peoples of hither Asia, in the time of Asoka, revealed’ new types, and thus we undoubtedly see an attempt for instance to represent foreign nations in the equestrian groups that adorn the Safchi gateways. On the eastern gateway, for example, besides mythical foreign peoples, two figures are represented riding on horned lions. One of the heads is clearly not of the Aryan type: the woolly negro- like hair and the thick coarse shape of the whole head surprises “giving palmyra palm bands (4édélei) to women,” is specified, that with these rolled spirally in discs they may enlarge the holes in their ears and so wear large and im- posing ornaments (¢édw, Mal. töda). Conf. Rottler, Tamil-Eng. Dict. s.v. aram. Jn this connexion see also E. Thurston, Madras Gort. Mus. Bullet. vol. II (1898), pll. xxil, xxv, pp. 128ff. 34 MYTHICAL AND REAL FOREIGNERS. THE HINDU TYPE. one; this same figure holds a bunch of grapes in his hand. In India wine is unknown. There appears to be no word in the early language for the vine or its cluster.! Even at the present day, CI KARA Mm 10. COMPARTMENT FROM THE THIRD ARCHWAY OF THE EAST GATEWAY AT SANCHTf. grapes are mostly brought from Kabul, though they are now culti- vated about Daulatäbäd. Thus the rider represents one who is not Indian, and has perhaps a remote connexion with the repre- sentations of Silenus that have been found at Mathura.” Although the framework of the figure is in the Perso-Indian style, at any rate this and the corresponding equestrian figures represent foreign nations, regarded as living far away in the North-west. The whole series of these figures—those mounted on goats, on dromedaries, on lions—present a distinct contrast to the Hindus riding on elephants. The mythical-geographical conceptions on which they are based remind one of those fabulous creatures of which Herodotus tells the Greeks,’ from Persian traditions related by Aristeas of Prokonnésos, and which, on the strength of Indian tales, Megasthenes described at a later date. The great majority of the other reliefs at Säfchi present the Hindu ty pe—a long head with full round face, large eyes, and thick lips. At Barähat (Bharhut) the same type appears, but it is somewhat harsher. The greatly extending ear-lobes are never wanting; the way in which the head-dress is emphasized often 1 Sanskrit dräkshä is ‘pdt; mridvikd, mridvi, is a new form. On the probable borrowing of ßdrpvs in Chinese, conf. Hirth, Mremde Einflüsse in d. Chin. Kunst, S. 15, 28, note 1. 2 Jour. A. S. Beng. vol. V, pp. 517, 567; Arch. Sur. Ind, Rep., vol. 1, pp. 242-44 ; and Growse, Mathura, 2d. ed. p. 156. 3 Herodotus, lib. iii, c. 116; lib. iv, ce. 13, THE DWARF FORMS. DEMON-TYPE. DRAPERY. 35 causes the heads to appear disproportionately large, so that, in the case of accessory personages especially, the whole figure has some- thing childish and dwarfish about it (conf. fig. 17, &c.). In this way real dwarfs appear, which are presumably connected with antique pigmy types (conf. fig. 11). This question, which demands much preliminary in- vestigation, cannot here be discussed in detail. Still it may be said that they represent the basis of the thick-set, dwarfish type of demon that appears later and extends into Lamaist art. It seems not to be without purpose that the dwarf capital appears on the west gateway at Sänchi, since the architrave represents the attack of the demons on the Bodhi-tree.! In the treatment of drapery, the earlier Buddhist art is very successful,—though . : ae ue SBIETARZCAPITAT: unusual articles of clothing, such as the monk’s rm DWARF-LIKER cowl, present difficulties. The dress of the men prmons. From the consists, in the main, of the same articles as west gateway at Sajichi. are generally worn at the present day,—a loin-cloth worn so as to resemble trowsers (Hind. dhéti, Tam. mundu) forms the garment proper. The upper part of the body is always bare; the modern jacket, for example (Hind. angiyd, Tam. sokkag), or other forms of this article of attire, nowhere appear. As covering for the upper part of the body a long shawl-like cloth is used, which is thrown about the shoulders in various ways—the modern angavastram, and so on. In descrip- tions contained in the sacred texts of gala costumes and the like, the chelukkhepa, t.e. the waving with the dress, that is the upper garment, is always mentioned (fig. 37). This upper garment has ever remained the heroic costume, if one may be allowed the expression, and in the earlier and later representations of Buddhist gods, forms the folds that wave about the figure like an aureole. This arrange- ment is often completely misunderstood in badly executed pictures, though East Asian art knows how to employ tastefully this Indian dress. (Conf. illus. in Chapters Ill and IV). Japanese articles of export, nevertheless, when they represent Buddhist deities often manifest the rudest misconceptions. The women on the sculptures of the older period are seen clothed in the loin-cloth only, but their ornaments and head-dresses are allthe more rich. The long loin-cloth, reaching to the ankles, is sometimes treated as transparent, and is then— since the sculptor lacked the means of expressing his idea—indicated by representing the figure without covering, yet so that the edge of a garment is visible over the ankles and between the legs. The upper part of the body is always uncovered: this light kind of dress is still to be I Tree and Serp. Worsh., pl. xviii; Pres. Nat. Monts. in India (Lond. 1896), pl. xxvi, or Cole, Sdichi (1885), pl. ix, 36 CLOTHING. 12. RELIEF ON THE INNER SIDE OF THE LEFT PILLAR OF THE EAST GATEWAY AT SANcCHi; A YAksHa.} found in the south of modern India among the Nayar- chchhis of Mala- bar, whose large ear - ornaments have been already mentioned. On several reliefs the women appear without any gar- ment but a narrow loin-cloth, the orna- mented girdle; head, arm and leg ornamentsbeingall the richer. Further details relating to these matters be- long to the history of costume. It was important to notice here, that, from the nature of the gar- ments, the hip, and not the breast and upper part of the body, becomes the fixed point starting from which the fi- gure wascomposed. One has the feeling that tine: artist wished to provide against the loin- cloth slipping from the» figure... «hase condition, imposed by the character of the vestments, ex- plains much in the modern Hindu; but it also explains the strained attitude of the figures both in 1 This is possibly Dhritaräshta, the white Yaksha ruler of the East: conf. Rockhill, Life of Buddha, p. 48, note; Minayeff, Recherches sur la Buddh. (in Ann. Mus. Guimet), pp.138f.; Arch. Sur. W. Ind., vol. IV, p. 99. inser. 3; and Cave Temples, pl. xxv.—J.B, ACCENTUATION OF THE HIP. SUBJECTS REPRESENTED. 37 the older and Jater art of India. Modern proverbs are conversant with this. An artistic feature which naturally originated from the sort of clothing described above,—the rich hip chains and girdle—is the prominence of one hip, the figure being represented with one foot firmly planted while the other, bent or in the act of stepping forward, is almost entirely relieved of the burden. This beauty device is of very ancient standing in Indian art ; it is usually, if not exclusively, seen in female figures. Modern miniatures have faithfully pre- served it and developed it to a certain coquettish elegance ; conf. figs. 8 and 13. The subjects that were represented were taken from the traditions of the life of the founder of the religion, and referred to local incidents. His life, until he attained Buddhat- tam—to use their own expression—seems to have been the chief subject for the earlier period. But besides these, there exist at least as many scenes representing solely the adoration and worship of religious symbols, processions to holy places, and so on. Besides there appear even on the monuments of the Asoka period a few representations which refer to the so-called Fatakas or stories of Buddha’s previous incar- RUE nations. The Fatakas form a part of the Mankla form of SRt canonical literature (of the Sä/ra class); they (Tirumagal). Modern are an inexhaustible storehouse of fables and S. Indian bronze. legends, but are also of exceptional import- ance in the history of civilization in ancient India. The plan of the work is briefly as follows :—According to the tradition, Gautama had passed through five hundred and fifty existences in all created forms,—as god, as man, as animal,—till, in his last incarnation, as the son of Suddhodana, he appeared as the deliverer of mankind. Five hundred and fifty verses, or groups of verses, which contain sayings of the Master, form the themes for as many tales told in support of them from Buddha’s last earthly hfe. Some event—an annoying incident with insubordinate monks, for example, or a contest with some adversary, a conversion, et cetera, is related in the attached commentary: Buddha adjusts matters, or delivers a discourse, which contains a parallel from one of his previous lives and concludes with the verse that forms the title as fabula docet. Owing to the simplicity of the religious ideas of the people at the ' Or Bhümidevi, the goddess of the earth, Vishru’s second wife, who is represented with two arms, holding a lotus flower in one while the other hangs down empty; she wears a crown, and her black hair hangs down to near her feet; she stands on a lotus. Tirumagal, ‘the divine or illustrious daughter,’ is a name of Lakshmi.—J.B. 38 SAKRA AND THE GODS. THE THUNDERBOLT. time, the figures required by Buddhist art for the representation of the subjects referred to, are few in number, and represent divinities of a low order—demons and beings half divine,—for Buddhism had taken root chiefly among the masses and everywhere employed the speech of the people. According to their teaching all the above- mentioned beings are mortal; even the gods owe their positions to their virtuous actions in previous existences, and appear through- out as believing promoters of the religion of the ‘ Vanquisher.’ — Now in the S#tras, especially in the ¥aétakas, a god and a god- dess are particularly prominent. In the Vedic pantheon, the thunder-god Indra or Sakra (the mighty) had attained a predominant position, and had thrust the older class of gods into the background; even in the Pali Säfras he is familiar, under the name of Sakka, as the chief god. ‘The Buddhists adopted into their mythology certain of the- Brahmanical gods, but modified their characters .and importance.. To Sakka, Mahabrahma and Mära,—possibly influenced by the Persian conceptions of the Ameshaspends,—they assigned the rank of archangels, and repre- sented them as ruling in great magnificence in their respective Devalokas or heavens, but often descending to interfere in human affairs. Sakra, like Jupiter Fulgurator, is the Brahmaz god of the atmosphere and king of the minor gods; and with the Buddhists he even bears like names—as, Väsava, Vajrapdzi, Devinda, Ma- ghavä, Sahassanetta (Sansk. Sahasranetra), &c., but they change Purindara (‘destroyer of towns’) into the Buddhistic epithet of Purindada (‘bestower of towns’). He is inferior in majesty to the other two archangels, but rules over the five lowest of the six Kämadevalokas and has his abode in the Tävatimsa (S. Trayas- trimsa) heavens. As in Brähma» mythology, his consort is Sujata or Sachi, his palace or car is called Vejayanta, his elephant Eravana (S. Airävata), and his charioteer Mätali.! In Hindu iconography also he holds the Vajräyudha, which he is represented as giving to those practising austerities to render them invincible. He appears in sculptures in the ornaments and costume of:a king: indeed, he is not distinguishable from royal figures. On the east gateway at Säncht (on the front of the right pillar) a large palace of the gods is represented, on the different terraces of which persons in regal costume are represented sitting and waited on by women who dance and play. They are certainly gods: in their left hands they hold a small bottle, in the right an object— not readily recognisable, but which resembles the later thunder- bolts (conf. fig. 1), the well-known ritual sceptres (vajra: Tibetan, rdo-rje) of the priests of the northern school). It must be the thunderbolt, the attribute of divine power—an attribute cor- responding well with the storm-myths of the Rigveda. 1 In Persian myth, Indra is the demon opposed to the Ameshaspend Asha-Vahista. Darmsteter, Zandavesta (Sac. Bks. of the East, vol. IV), vol. II, p. lxxii, or in Ann. Mus. Guim., tom. ILI, pp. xliv, xlv.—J.B. BRAHMA, MARA. DEVAPUTTRAS. SRi. 39 Mahäbrahmä, Brahma Sahampati or Pitämahä, is the greatest of all Devas. Though vastly inferior to Buddha, he rules the second of the Trailokya regions—the Brahma heaven, called Rüpävachara, which is beyond the Kämadevalokas. He has, as a symbol of sovereignty, a silver chhattra (Pali, chhatta).! Märaräja, the third of these Devas, is variously named Vasavat- timära, Namuchi, Päpiyän, Kämadhäturäja, Krishwa, Pisuna, &c. He is ruler of the highest of the six Kämadevaloka heavens—the Paranimmita-vasavatti Devaloka (Sans. Paranirmita-vasavar/in) or Vasavatti,— where life lasts 32,000 years. He has a position analogous to that of Ahriman among the Zoroastrians; is the lord of pleasure, sin and death,—the tempter, the evil principle, the representative of inherent sin. He is represented as riding on an elephant, and attended by the Marakayikas. He has a hundred arms and assumes monstrous forms. He owes his exalted rank to his having in a previous birth exercised a high degree of charity. His realm (Märadheyya) is that of re-birth as opposed to Nirvana.’ ‘The pantheon, however, is otherwise vague and accessory: in the legends a confused crowd of Devaputtas—‘sons of the gods’— appear; names are mentioned even, such as Mäläbhäri or Mälädhari —‘garland bearer’; but these names are ephemeral for beings living a life of pleasure in their heavens—an idealized representation of Indian royal courts. Notwithstanding the magnificence of the representations set forth, the principal theme of the legends is the inculcation of the vanity of sensuous pleasure and the iii iesmmasiibesstinceeiittadicecaiilll brevity of human life. It is very evident that this tend- ency of the texts—which are undoubtedly very old—was by no means calculated to de- velope plastic figures of in- dividual gods. One divinity only appears as a fully developed type and is always reproduced with a certain evident pleasure ; it is the ideal of the Indian woman, the goddess of beauty, of prosperity, of domestic blessing, of wealth: Pali, Siri; Sanskrit, Sri (Lakshmi). The 14. THE GODDESS SrRi (SRf). worship of this popular god- From the east gateway at Sifichi, conf. ill. 39. dess must have prevailed, in Buddhist times, throughout the whole of India. Stri and SEI, 1 Conf. Burnouf, Int. Bud: Ind., 2d.ed., pp. 116, 532f, 546f; Rhys Davids, Buddhist Suttas (Sac. Bks. of the East, vol. XI), pp. 162f. 2 Conf. Burnouf, Intr. Bud. Ind., 2d. ed. p. 68n. 40 THE GODDESS SIRi OR Sri. “woman and goddess of fortune,” says a still current proverb,!'—which affords a valuable reminiscence from Indian antiquity, according to the conception of which woman was by birth the equal of man? Sri, as Tyche or Fortuna, is frequently represented on gates, stone- railings, &c. Of special interest is the type at Udayagiri, where it is fully developed ; it appears in the Barähat (Bharhut) sculptures and is frequently re- ae peated at. - Tiruvalluvar, the Tamil poet of the weaver caste, in his Kural (v. 1082), styles the woman in full attire ‘the goddess Sri attacking with an army’s might” :— “She of the beaming eyes, To my rash look her glance replies, As if the matchless goddess’ hand Led forth an arméd band.” (Dr. Pope’s tr.). For Srior Lakshmi, see Vishnu Puräna, Wilson’s tr., Hall’s ed., vol. I, pp. 118-120,144-5. ? Cave Temples, p.74, and pl. 1; Cunningham, Bharhut Stupa, pl. xxxvi, fig. 1; Fergusson, Tree and Serp. Wor., pp. 112, 113, 120. * Cunningham, Bharhut, pll. xxi-xxiii. Minayeff, Recher. sur le Bouddhisme (Ann. Mus. Guimet), pp. 93-102, 138-152, examines the divinities represented as compared with the texts. ° Kubera treading on a Yaksha is a type preserved even in Lamaism and Japanese Buddhism. Kubera and Virudhwka are two of the so-called Lokapälas, again referred to. We have here the origin of the creatures called vdhana (vehicles) on which the Hindu gods stand or ride. Conf. the remarks below on Garuda. MINOR DEITIES STAND ON VAHANAS. SURYA. AI their attributes ; thus, Kubera, king of the demons called Yakshas, stands on a pointed-eared, thick-set demon, and the Naga king ona piece of rock in which are seen heads of snakes, in front a pond with lotuses. Two Yakshini, females, stand on Makaras (fig. 16). In others the attribute or cognizance under the feet is wanting, and they stand instead on elephants or on a stone fence, as it were, on detached parts of a Torana, in order to equalize them with those standing on their attributes as pedestals.! Two or three of these women stand under a tree, and raise their hands among the branches as if to pluck the blossoms. The same subject is met with decoratively treated under the sächis of the gateways at Sähchi.? Another Hindu divinity also occurs, though rarely, among the early Buddhist sculptures. This is Sürya, the sun-god (Gr. Helios)— evidently an importation from the north or Central Asia. He is the only member of the pantheon who is represented as clad from the feet upwards to the bosom ; he wears a girdle, avyanga (Baktrian, arwydonha) about his waist; and is usually represented in a chariot drawn by four (or seven) horses, and attended by two females. Examples of this divinity occur on a pillar of the old rail at Gaya, in the early cave at Bhaja, and in the Ananta cave at Udayagiri.’ With ‘these we terminate the types of national gods represented as human beings so far as they come under our consideration. 16. PILLAR FIGURE FROM For the sculptors of that age it was more BARAHAT DESCRIBED IN dittienlt terepresent the other mychological 2 a ica beings. The lower divinities had to be ningham’s Bharhut, pl. xxii. moulded after fixed types; for they play a large part in the Sé#tras already mentioned. 1 The reliefs of Bhitesar (Mathura), Cunningham, Arch. Sur. Ind., vol. ILI, pll. vi and xi, are certainly not Buddhist (probably Jaina). These very erotically repre- sented groups, which Curtius has so pertinently described (Arch. Zeit. N.F., Bd. VIII, 1876, Ss. 95f.) have no trees in blossom behind them. A noteworthy parallel in mediseval art is supplied by statues standing on “the evil principle; and one that resembles the véhanas, the medieval personifications of the virtues and vices standing or riding on animals. E.P. Evans, Animal Symbolism in Ecclesiastical Architecture, p. 163. 2 Fergusson, Z'ree and Serp. Worsh., pl. xiii. 3 See Räjendraläl Mitra’s Buddha Gaya, pl.1; Cunningham, Arch. Sur. Ind. Rep., vol. ILI, pl. xxvii; and Fergusson, Archeol. in India, p. 34. Sürya also appears on the Lahaul Lota; Arch. Sur. W. Ind., vol. LV, p. 6. 42 HYBRID FORMS. THE NAGA. As explained above, the connexion with Iran introduced into India a series of artistic forms which became the standards in sculpture as well as in architecture. From the series of hybrid creations that had come from Western Asia and that were employed decoratively, attempts were made to adapt certain forms to native purposes and to develope them into fixed types, whilst closely related forms continued to be purely decorative. The character of the old Indian reliefs that were also decorative rendered this transition easy. Let us now enumerate the different beings for which early Buddhist art required types, and thus we shall have the opportunity of pointing out how extensive was the hold taken by the hybrid style of Western Asia, and how, on the other hand, the art imagination adapted the borrowed forms for its own needs, nationalized them, and in some cases succeeded admirably in re- animating and developing them,—evidently because indigenous types of a similar character already existed. Much inconstancy in the forms, to which names can hardly be given, is specially remark- able ; even those types that we can name do not preserve their similarity, and a series of imaginary shapes crops up, as in early’ Roman art, in which antique elements—sirens, centaurs, &c., still continued in a way to exist, though no longer intelligible. The similarity between ancient Buddhist art and the monuments of early Christian times, without direct contact being necessarily assumed in every case— becomes greater still when the Graco- Baktrian (Gandhära) types are introduced. We shall commence with a type in which the human element still 17. GODS AND MEN (DEVAMANUSSA) WORSHIPPING A STÜPA. On the east gateway at Säüchi. plays the principal röle,—the so-called Naga. Indian popular belief, whose conceptions were moulded later by the official Brah- man religion, besides demons of every sort, giants, &c., recognises DEMIGODS. THE NAGAS. 43 a much venerated class of snake-gods (Nagas). We cannot under- take an examination of the origin of this belief, which is unknown to the Vedic age; suffice it to say that besides the world of gods and men there are eight classes of demigods which the Bauddha writings generally enumerate in the order—Devas, Nagas, Rak- shasas, Gandharvas, Asuras, Garudas, Kinnaras, and Mahoragas ;! but the Yakshas often take the third place instead of Rakshasas. The second class form a separate snake world, the in- habitants of which have the power of assuming human forms. ‘They are fabled to re- side under the Trikü/a rocks supporting Mount Meru, and also in the waters of springs, lakes, rivers, &c., watching over great treasures, causing rain and certain maladies, and be- coming dangerous when in anger. They are the subjects of Virüpäksha, the red king of the western quarter and prob- ably the Buddhist form of Siva, who is well known in Hindu mythology as Virüpäksha as well as Näganätha and Naga- bhüshana. Chiefs or kings of the Nagas are named in the legends and their deep rever- ence for Buddha, which puts men to shame, is specially characteristic of them. The wonderful alms-bowl of Buddha is, according to the legend, a gift from the demigod kings of the four quarters. More than once, Naga chiefs ap- proached the Master,—thus en Muchilinda, the tutelary deity „ VS He ee, f rom a fresco in Cave I at Ajanta; of a lake near Gaya, protected — Griffithy Paintings in the Ajanta Caves. him from the rain; Apalala, the guardian Naga of the source of the Swat or Subhavastu river in Udyäna, was converted by Sakyamuni shortly before his Nirvaza ; Eläpatra (Erapato, Sans. Airävata), another Nagaraja, consulted Buddha about rebirth in a higher condition; and Chakravaka 1The Jainas also enumerate eight divisions of their Vyantara gods, viz.:—Pisächas, Bhütas, Yakshas, Räkshasas, Kinnaras, Kimpurushas, Mahorägas (boas), and Gand- harvas. See note 2, p.47. Hach of the Tirtharkaras has an attendant Yaksha and Yakshini. 44 THE NAGA TYPE. Naga is figured on a pillar at Barähat.! Evenin the ritual for ad- mission to orders, the questionwas introduced whether the candidate was nota Naga. Thus it was necessary to represent Nagas typically in the body of the compositions illustrative of the life of the founder of the religion ; and yet in the scenes in which they appear in the legends they could be properly represented only in human form. The problem was admirably solved; the Nagas were represented as human, and, in the manner of the Egyptian Uraeus-snake, a ser- pent—usually many-hooded in the case of a male, but single-hooded 19. NA@a AND NÄGINi IN WATER. On a wall-painting in Cave II at Ajanti; from Griffiths’ Paintings. for a Nagi—was placed over the head (or rather springing from behind the neck) as ornament. (See figs. 8, 18, 20). We do not maintain that this type is to be regarded as a result of contact with western Asiatic art, but neither must we reject it uncondition- ally, for the Nagas were represented in other forms also as hybrid creatures. The Naga in human form with the snake-hood has been retained in Buddhist art in all its ramifications, and is found 1 Boal, Romantic Hist. of Buddha, pp. 276ff; Si-yu-ki, vol. I, p. 37; Rockhill, Life of the Buddha, pp. 34, 46f., 244f.; Cunningham, Bharhut Stupa, p. 27, &c. NAGAS. MATSYANARIS. YAKSHAS. 45 also in the Chino-Japanese, where snake-kings are represented as men in Chinese costume, with a dragon on the back of the neck, whose head appears over that of the human form. Along with this human shape is also found a purely animal one. Sometimes even both appear in combination (conf. ill. 19): snakes the upper part of whose bodies are human, their heads crowned with serpents’ hoods, while the lower part of the body from the hips downwards is purely animal. This is, iconographically, the proper form of the Naga, and they are so represented whenever they appear in their proper element—water ; and so we find them pictured in the Ajanta wall paintings (fig. 19). These forms are employed by pre- ference decoratively, or as accessory figures in larger compositions of the purely human Nagas with snakes as head ornaments. But this type may certainly be regarded as derived from west Asian prototypes. It is allied to the creatures with fish tails iS % that are represented with human 90, Naga, from Ajanta, Cave IT. bodies: apparently mostly of the female sex—the so-called Matsyandris—‘fish girls.’ From this type, modern Brahman art has evolved the representation of Ganga and Yamuna, the goddesses of the Ganges and Jumna. ‘Together with ‘the creatures with fish tails and human busts, there are also decor- ative figures with animal bodies, on which a few words will be said. Yakshas (Pali, Yakkhas) appear frequently in Bauddha legend and iconography, being usually enumerated as in the third rank of the secondary gods. heir king Kubera, Vaisravana or Alakesvara, is guardian of the north, and his capital is Alaka or Alakamanda. But the other three guardians were also styled Yakshas; and we find various individual Yakshas named, as—Alawaka, Sätägera, Bemäwata, Pürzaka, Virlidaka, Gafigita, Suchiloma. Supavasa (Supravrisha), Nandaka, &c. They are always represented in human form. At Barähat they appear as guardians or dwära- palas at the gateways; at Nasik also, one at the entrance of the Chaitya-cave is indicated in an inscription as a Yakkha, and the two figures by the door of Cave III bear the same character. At Barähat, Yakshinis also are figured on the pillars at the entrances, — as Chadd (Chanda) and Sudasava Yakkhini.! !Sp. Hardy, Man. Budd.,pp.58, 269, 265f.,271, 272n.; Quest. of Milinda (in S. Bks. East), vol. I,p. 152; Cunningham, Bharhut, pp.19f.; Burgess, Cave Temples, pp. 268, 274, and pll. xx and xxv, 46 YAKSHA GUARDIANS. WINGED FIGURES. The Dulva (xi.fol. 344) gives us a sort of key to the frequent repre- sentation of Yakshas as dwdrapdlas: Anathapindada asks the Buddha how the vihära must be ornamented with paintings (or sculptures). The Buddha answers—“On the outside door you must have figured a Yaksha holding a club in his hand; in the vestibule, you must have represented a great miracle, the five divisions (of of beings) the circle of transmigration ; in the courtyard, the series of births (Jätakas) ; on the door of the Buddha’s special apartment (gandhaküti, ‘hall of perfumes’), a Yaksha holding a wreath in his hand; in the house of the attendarits (or, of honour: rim-gro), bhikshus and sthaviras arranging the dharma; on the kitchen must be represented a Yaksha holding food in his hand; on the door of the storehouse, a Yaksha with an iron hook in his hand ; on the water-house (well-house ?), Nagas with various ornamented vases in their hands; on the wash-house (or, steaming-house : bsro-khang), foul sprites or the different hells (zärakas); on the medicine-house, the Tathagata tend- ing the sick; on the privy, all that is dreadful in a ceme-: tery ; on the door of the lodging-house (itext eftaced). a skeleton, bones, and a skull.’’? But if inntbetre presentations ofthe Näga, the human element predomin- ates and so affords the principal factor in distinguishing them, the identi- fication of the winged figures is more difficult. Wingedanimalsoc- 21. A GANDHARVA OR KINNARi. curin suchnumbers From Ajantä wall-paintings. that it is impossible to provide them all with Indian names. A series of representations, however, stand out conspicuously from among those that are purely decorative. Next to the human fieures are the hybrid creatures with human busts, Indian head- dress and ornaments, represented so frequently 1 Burnouf, Introd., 2d. ed. p.234; Lotus, p. 305; Childers. Pali Diet., s.v.; Ind, . Ant. vol IX, pp. 142-3. 2 From Rockhill’s Life of Buddha, p. 48, note 2, HYBRID CREATURES: KINNARAS, ETC. 47 at Safichi. The lower part of the body is that of a bird on which the hips of the human form are set; the bushy tail, intended for that of a peacock, is treated decoratively. On the reliefs they appear flying from both sides towards the holy places,—stipas, foot-prints, sacred trees, &c., and are hanging offerings upon these objects of worship—flowers, strings of beads, &c.—and thus fre- quently accompany the human worshippers (man and woman) of the under part of the relief: a well defined, oft-employed phrase, which occurs so frequently in the texts, corresponds to this—“ gods and men there offered wreaths, &c.” In this decorative form these winged creatures are still to be found in modern Brahman art. (Conf. ill. 15). They passed also into the Gandhära school, but with marked differences. The antique Eros type has supplanted the early forms,—so that figures resembling the angels of Christians are found (conf. illus. Le Bon, Les Crvilizations de l’/nde, p. 251 ; Four. Ind. Art and Indust. vol. VIII, p. 74)... The form occurring at Sänchi (conf. ill. 4 and 17) and Barähat is worthy of notice because its wings are really used, so that they are not simply attributes of speed.! The positions assigned to these figures seem to agree best with the characters assigned to. the, fourth class of demigods—the Gandharvas (Pali, Gandhabba)—the musicians of Sakra, who join with their master to serve and worship Buddha.? Modern art, however, also represents the seventh class, known as Kinnaras and Kinnarts, by the type above pon ne Hees described, as the modern Siamese Cunningham, Bharhut, pl. xxvii, 5. painting in fig.23 shows. The two classes, in fact, have got mixed up or confounded. Notwithstanding the west Asian form of the wings, the type is a purely Indian one, and the time of its origin can hardly be fixed. As to the Siren form of representation of the Kinnaris, there is a Barähat relief which, if it were more distinct, might afford a sug- 1 Cunningham, Bharhut, pl. xiii, 1, xxxi, 1. 2 See Feer, Aradäna Sataka (Ann. Mus. Guimet, t. XVIII), pp. 58, 77, 88; Lalita Vistara, passim. The Gandharvas or Gandharbas, in Brähman mythology, belong also to the class of secondary gods, or attendants; this class includes—(1) Kinnaras, having a human body with the head of a horse,—musicians in the retinue of Kuvera; (2) Kimpurushas, with a human face and the body of a bird, are often confounded in later times with the Kinnaras and Gandbarvas; (3) Gandharvas are similarly represented with a human bust on the body of a bird; their wives are the Apsarases, their chief Chitraratha or Supriya, and they are the attendants of Dhritarashtra (Dhatarattka), guardian of the East; (4) Pannagas or Nagas; (5) Siddhas, who fly in the air and can appear anywhere in a moment;. (6) Vidyädharas, the celestial students, skilled in all knowledge; and besides these, the Yakshas, Räkshasas, &e. For some of these monstrosities, see Räjendraläl Mitra, Buddha Gaya, pll. xxxili, xxxiv, xxxvi, xxxvili, xliv, xlv, and xlvii, 48 KINNARIS. GARUDAS. gestion (ill. 22). In it are a pair of such creatures so represented as to be seen only to the knees and who appear to be wearing leaves of trees round the body (parna: leaf and feather). These secondary deities, then, may have been originally represented in the costume of the aborigines of India, which, by borrowing from the antique, pesuited= «in. the siren type. The names deva, devatd, ‘divinity,’ but in>the’sense of ‘angel,’ will suffice generally to designate this whole class of gods, which is apparently un- [anal Gere he type is still re- tained in Japan- ese art, as fig. 24 shows. Another type, the development of which may to Some: “extent, -be observed in the Sculip pure: = at Sänchti, is nearly allied in its form to these demi- . oe ee oods. These are 23. MODERN SIAMESE PAINTING: KINNARI. the sixth class or Ger wd as, the winged steeds of important divinities, which appear among those thus described, in some sort as princes. In India the representation of a Garuda bird is of extreme antiquity, but a systematic account of this mythical creature is extremely difficult ; only what is certain and of value for the explanation of Buddhist sculptures need be mentioned. ‘The Indian popular belief recognizes the Garuda or Suparza (Pali: Garu/a and Supanna) as the king of birds; he is the deadly enemy of the snakes, the Nagas described above, which he kills and injures when he can. A kind of vulture, called Garuda, and living on snakes, can hardly form the foundation of the ancient allegory: possibly it is of Iranian origin, related to the legends of the Simurg. From the myth, various birds have come SS SSS THE GARUDAS. 49 to be called Garudas in different districts.! How this representation is connected with the Vedic one, which recognizes a solar-being (!) Garutmant, has no bearing upon our purpose. Only this, perhaps— in the Buddhist sutras (fatakas) the antagonism of the Garuda, Nä- gäntaka, or Tärk- shya, to the snake plays a prominent part.? In some places, according to the popular belief, the Garuda, Suparza, or Tärkshya, is represented, like the Näga, as also 24. THE GODDESSES KARIÖBINGA AND 'I'FN-NIN. From a Japanese woodcut. possessing the faculty of assuming human form. 95, Dips RIDING Buddha, or one of his disciples, is shewn making on Garupas. From a peace between the two creatures, and we find relief at Saücht. both at the feet of the Sage imploring better incarnations. On the relief from the east gateway at Sanchi, given in fig. 26, the ! In S. India the Falco pondischerianus or red Brähmani kite, which is a sort of dwarfish fishing eagle, but not probably a destroyer of snakes. Garuda seems to be chiefly applied in the S. Maratha country to Circaetus Gallicus, a widely distributed and conspicuous bird, and certainly a snake-eating eagle. In Kanara the name is also given to the Great Hornbill (Dichociros bicornis),of remarkable appearance, and which eats snakes occasionally. See Jerdon, vol. I, p. 77. 2 For the Vedic, Epic, and other legends and allusions,—-see De Gubernatis, Zoological Mythology, vol. II, pp. 180-195. The Buddhist drama, ascribed to king Sri-Harshadeva, on the deliverance from Garuda, of Sankhachüda of the Naga race, has been translated into English by Mr. Palmer Boyd (1872), and into French by M. Abel Bergaigne (1879). 50 GARUDA : GRIFFIN, CHERUB. animal kingdom is represented adoring the holy fig tree. In the corner, beside a five-headed snake, evidently the king of the Nagas, stands a large bird with ear- ornaments and big bushy tuft, represented on the whole like a great parrot, and thus a purely Indian type, while his wings again show the artificial forms of west Asian art. This is assuredly the Garuda, with the Naga, whose mortal enemy he is. This parrot- like creature has scarcely had any successors in Indian art, but it is clearly the ancient national repre- sentation. Now, on the same relief, along with the splendidly drawn Indian animal realm— Indian buffaloes, extraordinarily true to nature, and, depicted al- most with a touch of humour— are very artificial lions, leonine creatures with dogs’ heads, lions with griffin-like heads. On other reliefs these last creations of west Asian fancy appear with wings, as represented above, as vehicles of the gods who, along with the so-called Kinnaras, ride upon them through the air to worship at holy places. It is interesting to notice that the artificial-like wings of west Asian art again appear here. Evidently it is the Indian feeling for Nature that reanimates these appendages that had been stiffened into a symbol. From these last-named forms the Garuda was afterwards developed, as the Gryps, Gryphus or griffin, was in Greece. But the man who composed the sculpture shown in ill. 26 saw other things. In the middle of the relief we find oxen with human faces, long pointed beards and finely twisted manes, every lock of which is represented according to rule; these are derivatives of the Assyrian cherubs. They are still more like the ancient Greek river-gods. If this idea is the correct one, they serve 26. THE ANIMAL WORLD REVERENCING A SACRED TREE (Bodhi tree) A relief from the inner side of the second architrave of the east gate at Safichi. i ? ar GARUDA : GRIFFIN, TEN-GU. Se to indicate locality and belong properly to the same category with the buffaloes always wallowing in the water. Another explanation seems more correct; a few words on this will follow in another connection. The picture affords a new and interesting parallel with the Greek griffin in the dog- headed lions on the left side above the griffin itself. This representation reminds one of the treasure - guarding griffins of Ktesias, which | think have been correctly identified by Ball with the great shaggy Tibetan dogs: they are the prototype of the so-called Corean dog. The relief in fig. 26 con- tains at any rate a series 27. JAPANFSE TEN-GUS (Garudas). of variations upon OS. From a woodcut by Hokusai. theme—the representation of the Garuda, for which—in a groping way—foreign types have been introduced, the names of which perhaps sounded like the Indian word. The native parrot type on the one hand, the west Asian 28. GARUDA FIGURES, from Ajantä paintings, Cave 17. griffin on the other, are the bases upon which more modern icoro- graphy developed its Garuda. The griffin type was retained in Buddhist art, but it soon received (when ?) human arms: indeed the human element was sometimes even more prominent. Modern Brähmana art makes of it a winged man with a beak, and the Chinese form resembles it. There the Garuda (Thien- kou, celestial dog) appears as a winged man, though the head generally, and the feet always, remain animal (ill. 29). The Japanese prefer to represent their Ten-gus (Garuda) as fabulous animals, and two types are employed—one more animal and the other almost human (conf. fig. 27). The way in which the Japanese sa ANIMAL-HEADED DEMONS. TIRYAGYONI. contrive to vary these hybrid creatures, for the purposes of ritual and caricature, manifests a masterly observation of the grotesque- comic, as well as of the weird elements of animal nature. Good examples of purely human Garudas with wings and de- moniac expression of counten- ance are to be seen in the British Museum sculptures from Jamälgarhi (conf. Four. Ind. Art and Indust., vol. VIII, pl. xxvi, or sep. ed. p. 18 and pl.. xxiv). In modern Nepalese temples, two figures of Garuda form the dis- tinguishing supporters of Amoghasiddha, the _ fifth 29, THIEN-KOU: 30. KHYUNG: iste ‘ : Garuda, modern Garuda, Lamaist Dhyani Buddha, Me ho, like the Chinese bronze. gilt bronze. Jaina Pärsvanätha, is depicted with a seven-headed snake as a canopy or nimbus. And in the shrines Garuda is often repre- sented with a serpent in his beak and a Nägakanyä in each claw. Such are the types to which names can be given among the sub- ordinate gods in the art of the Asoka period, with their offshoots in modern miniature art. The horse-headed female figure on the Asoka railing at Buddhagayä stands almost alone and is no doubt of purely Indian origin (conf. Räjendraläl Mitra, Buddhagayd, pl. xxxiv, 2, and Griffiths, Ajantä, vol. Il, pl. 142). It agrees with the usual description of the Kinnaras; and we have goat and ram- headed beings in Naigameya, a sort of companion of the war-god Skanda; in Harinegamest, the deer-headed general of Indra; in Daksha, and in the sculpture in the Kailäsa temple at Elura', The combining of the human body with animal elements seems to have been brought gropingly, so to speak, into connexion with the doctrine of reincarnation. It is not impossible that these types, introduced from Western Asia, were explained in Indian fashion— j.e., in each degree of animal existence was hidden a human one which would be attained by good works, and which might then lead to deliverance. It is curious that Chino-Japanese tradition assigns to the centaur-like art-forms the name of Tiryagyonis” as the repre- sentatives of quadrupeds within the transmigratory gradation. It is thus not impossible that the centaur represented on the Asoka rail- 1 Epig. Ind., vol. II, p. 314, and pl. ii.; Trans. R. As. Soc., vol. Il, p. 326, and pl. 1; Muir, Or. Sansk. Texts, vol. IV, pp. 381, 384; Wilson, Vishnu Purdna (Hall’s ed.), vol. I, p. 132n; Wilkins, Hindu Mythology, p. 309. 2 Centaur-like figures as representations of the Tiryagyonigatas (Jap. Chiku-sh6) are found in the section on ‘ Buddhist effigies’ in the Japanese work Gwa-zen, i.e. ‘ Picture creel,’ of Hayashi Moriatsu, A.D, 1721, containing instructions for drawings and paintings, with many roughly drawn but strongly characteristic examples. The male and female Centaurs are, in Japanese fashion, distinguished by their coiffure.— Dr. F. W. K. Müller. THRONE-SEATS AND PILLAR ORNAMENTATION. 3 ing at Gayä, and hybrid forms thereto related, simply represent such transmigratory phases. The other emblems depicted on the Gaya railing and the oxen with men’s heads in fig. 26, already mentioned, perhaps also belong to this category. It has been stated that the Indian feeling for nature animated afresh even the fantastic forms of the western Asiatic hybrid style. A curious example of the way in which even animal forms when used decoratively were regarded as living animals may be here cited as it well illustrates the Indian character and shows off their childishly naive and invariably humorous disposition. When speak- ing of the wood-carving- style, we have already noticed the chairs and throne-backs in which such interesting early forms have been preserved; but along with these, as illus. 8 shows, west Asian (Persian) winged animals have been introduced among the accessory figures. The rampant lions in the corners of the back of the throne, with or without wings, continue from that time a favourite motif for the ornamentation of pillars and columns of every description. Elephants are worked from the projecting cross-pieces which are ornamented with dragons’ heads, and sfr, under the rampant lion a new form, the M Ze / N (X Sa, 4 kara—about which we must say a few words. BAHT On the specimen from Amarävati (fig. 8) little human figures appear on the side pieces also. We must doubtless imagine as similar the throne of king Vikramaditya, of which the legend tells. and whose little carved figures even relate stories." A fragment of a throne, fig. 31, from the ruins of Nalanda, shows the animals still more artificially: the old Indian dragons’ heads, which remind one of German forms, have entirely dis- appeared; and instead appears the elephant. In the mediaeval style of Dravida (S. India, Madura, &c.) these pillar forms have been adapted to i native conceptions, z.e. hunting scenes of the 31. FRAGMENT oF A Kurumbars and the like, and have been further ee ee aa ruins of Nalanda. developed in a highly grotesque fashion. (Conf. Nrs. 8, 32). The absurd story of the Sabsaddtha -jataka shows that the popular Indian mind regarded these animal figures as real animals standing one upon the other. Even though the fable only makes sport of such art creations, it is sufficiently clear from it how far the Hindu by himself was from invent- ing such compositions, and how, on the contrary, his own feeling led him to again reduce these overloaded foreign forms. The story, which is interesting in more ways than one, may be given here from Mr. Rouse’s translation in Prof. Cowell’s edition.’ 1 Conf. on this B. Jülg, Mongolische Maerchensammlung Siddhikür und Ardschi Bordschi Chan, Innsbruck 1868, x1 ff. 2 Fausböll, The Jätaka together with its Commentary, vol. II, p. 243; Cowell’s English version, vol. II, translated by W. H. D. Rouse, pp. 168ff. 54 SABBADATHA-JATAKA. “As the haughty Fackal, &c.’ This story the Master told while staying in the Ve/uvana, about Devadatta. Devadatta, having won favour in the eyes of Ajätasattu, yet could not make the repute and support which he received last any time. Ever since they saw the miracle done when Nälägiri! was sent against him, the reputation and allowances of Devadatta began to fall off. So one day, the brethren were all talking about it in the Hall of Truth: ‘ Venerable brother, Devadatta managed to get reputation and support, yet could not long keep it up. And the Master came to them with the question: ‘What story, O monks, do ye sit and discuss ?’ and when they had told him, he said: ‘Not only now has Devadatta thrown away all chance of benefits: this happened in olden days in just the same way.’ And then he told them an old-world tale: “Once upon a time, when Brähmadatta was king of Bäränasi, the Bodhisattva? was his house-priest, and he had mastered the three Vedas and the eighteen branches of knowledge. He knew the spell entitled ‘Of subduing the World.’ (Now this spell is one which involves religious meditation). One day the Bodhisattva thought that he would recite this spell; so he sat down in a place apart upon a flat stone, and there went through his reciting of it. It is said that this spell could be taught to no one without use of a special rite; for which reason he recited it in the place just described. It so happened that a jackal lying in a hole heard the spell at the time he was reciting it, and got it by heart. We are told that this jackal in a previous existence had been some Brahmawa, who had learned the charm ‘Of subduing the World.’ The Bodhisattva ended his recitation and rose up, saying—‘ Surely I have that spell by heart now. Then the jackal arose out of his hole and cried—‘Ho Brahmaza! I have learnt the spell better than you know it yourself!’ and off he ran. The Bodhisattva set off in chase, and followed some way, crying—‘ Yon jackal will do a great mischief—catch him, catch him!’ But the jackal got clear off into the forest. The jackal found a she-jackal, and gave her a little nip upon the body. ‘What is it, master ?’ she asked. ‘Do you know me,’ he asked, ‘or do you not?’ ‘I do’ know you. He repeated the spell, and thus had under his orders several hundreds of jackals, and gathered round him all the elephants and horses, lions and tigers, boars and deer, and all other four-footed creatures ; and he became their king under the title of Sabbada¢ha,‘ and a she-jackal he made his consort. On the backs of two elephants stood a lion, and on the lion’s back sat Sabbadatha, 1 A great elephant, which, at Devadatta’s instigation, was let loose for the purpose of destroying the Buddha, but which only did him reverence; “non facit hoc jussus nulloque docente magistro: crede mihi, nostrum sensit et ille deum.” Hardy, Manual of Buddhism, p. 331; Milindapanha, iv, 4 (Sac. Bks. of the East), vol. i, p. 288. ? Buddha in a previous existence. 3 Reading djändmi. +The name signifies ‘ All-tusk,’ ‘ All-biting.’ Sansk. Sarvadamshtra: a play on the word Sabbarattha, Sansk. Savarishtra—‘ All-ruling.’ SABBADATHA-JATAKA. 55 the jackal king, along with his consort the she-jackal, and great honour was paid to them. Now the jackal was tempted by his great honour and became puffed up with pride, and he resolved to capture the kingdom of Bäränasi. So with all the four-footed creatures in his train, he came to a place near to Barazasi. His host covered twelve leagues of ground. From his position there he sent a message to the king. ‘Give up your kingdom or fight for it! The citizens of Bäränrast, smitten with terror, shut close their gates and stayed within. Then the Bodhisattva drew near the king and said to him, ‘Fear not, mighty king! leave me the task of fighting with the jackal king Sabbada¢ha. [xcept me, no one is able to fight with him at all’ Thus he gave heart to the king and the citizens. ‘I will ask him at once,’ he went on, ‘what he will do in order to take the city.’ So he mounted the tower over one of the gates, and cried out— ‘Sabbada¢ha, what will you do to get possession of this realm?’ ‘I will cause the lions to roar, and with the roaring | will frighten the multitude: thus will I take it!’ ‘Oh! that’s it,’ thought the Bodhi- sattva, and down he came from the tower. He made proclamation by beat of drum that all the dwellers in the great city of Bäränasi, over all its twelve leagues, must stop up their ears with flour (dough). The multitude heard the command, they stopped up their own ears with flour, so that they could not hear each other speak—nay, they even did the same to their cats and other animals. “Then the Bodhisattva went up a second time into the tower, and cried out, ‘Sabbadä/4a!’ ‘What is it, Brahmaza,’ quoth he. ‘How will you take this realm?’ he asked. ‘I will cause the lions to roar, and I will frighten the people and destroy them, thus will I take it!’ he said. ‘You will not be able to make the lions roar; these noble lions, with their tawny paws and shaggy manes, will never do the bidding of an old jackal like you!’ The jackal, stubborn with pride, answered, ‘Not only will the other lions obey me, but I'll even make this one, upon whose back I sit, roar alone!’ ‘Very well,’ said the Bodhisattva, ‘do it, if you can.’ So he tapped with his foot on the lion, which he sat upon, to roar, and the lion resting his mouth upon the elephant’s temple, roared thrice, without any manner of doubt. The elephants were terrified and dropped the jackal down at their feet; they trampled upon his head and crushed it to atoms. Then and there Sabbadä/ha perished. And the elephants, hearing the roar of the lion, were frightened to death, and wounding one another, they all perished there. The rest of the creatures, deer and boars, down to the hares and cats, perished then and there, all except the lions; and these ran off and took to the woods. There was a heap of carcases covering the ground for twelve leagues. The Bodhi- sattva came down from the tower, and had the gates of the city thrown open. By beat of drum he caused proclamation to be made throughout the city: ‘Let all the people take the flour (dough) out of their ears, and they that desire meat, meat let them take!’ And the people all ate what meat they could, fresh; and the rest they dried 56 SABBADÄTHA-JÄTARA. and preserved. It was at this time, according to tradition, that people first began to dry meat.” “The Master having finished this discourse, identified the Birth by the following verses, full of divine wisdom :— “Even as the jackal stiff with pride, Craved for a mighty host on every side, And all toothed creatures came Flocking around, until he won great fame: Even so the man who is supplied With a great host of men on every side, As great renown has he . As had the Jackal in his sovranty. “In those days Devadatta was the Jackal, Ananda was the king, and I was the chaplain.” 32. CHANGCHA-HUTUKTU LALITAVAJRA. For the ornamentation of the throne compare ill. 8 and 31. From a miniature on silk, 18th century. _ It is clear that a throne like the one shown in figs. 31 or 32 was in the mind of the narrator of the ¥dtaka. The ancient Oriental idea of imagining the subject, the vanquished, as lying under the feet of CHANGCHA HUTUKTU. MAKARA. GREEK ELEMENTS. 57 his conqueror, is interesting here. But this motif also originated in western Asia, where, in Assyrian reliefs for example, upright figures of gods are clumsily placed on the backs of animals, like one hiero- glyph upon the other, without the slightest attempt at appropriate- ness. The Indian love for nature, which was only too strongly developed, gives a burlesque interpretation to the idea. The throne- seats with ornaments, just described, have been preserved even in the latest Lamaist ecclesiastical style of Tibet and China. Ill. 32 represents the throne of a Lamaic ecclesiastical prince ; the original is found in a splendid work painted on silk, dating from about the middle of last century, and containing the genealogy of the so-called Changcha Hutuktu of Pekin. The holy man sits on a throne, the back of which consists of two elephants, with two lions above them, and two goats with riders above these again; higher up still are seen two elephants apparently running downwards, and in the middle a Garuda and Nagas. All these are the decorative elements of ancient wooden doors and throne-backs loosely super- posed on one another. The sea-elephant, Makara, a creature formed of the forepart of an elephant with the body and tail of a fish, appears even on the reliefs of the Asoka railing at Buddhagayä, along with winged elephants and hippocampi,! &c. It has been retained everywhere in Indian art, though later the fish-tail was made into an ornament. When, later still, it became the ensign of Kama, the Indian god of love, it was 33. Makara. From due, as has long been recognised, to Greek ua ee \ ) Z = i dress of the old Java- influence: the dolphin of Aphrodite supplied nese Maäjusri. the model. All the Greek. elements dound within The Ascka period, even counting the Sähchi monuments, follow through- out, as it were,in the steps of the west Asiatic forms. Altogether there are not many: representations of centaurs, and water-gods (oxen with human faces). Of more importance is the question whether the thunderbolt as an attribute of gods, was introduced by Greek influence, or whether the streaming sheaf of lightning-flashes of the Babylonian-Assyrian gods should be con- sidered as the model; though the former seems to me the most probable, no certain proof is forthcoming. This must depend on the date of its introduction and the extent of the western influence at the time. I cannot here enter upon the subject of the representation of the dwarfish creatures, which are regarded sometimes as real human dwarfs and sometimes as evidently demi-gods, nor upon so much that is connected therewith. “But [ would like to point out that the ! Räjendraläl Mitra, Buddha Gayd, pl. xlvi; Cunningham, Mahäbodhi, pl. ix, 15; another as a pillar ornament, Burgess, Cave Temples, pl. xvi, 6. 58 COMPOSITION. PROCESSIONS. FORMAL REPETITION. type is the same as that of the antique pigmies. (Conf. above, p. 34). It is interesting to observe that the account of the pigmies, like that referred to on p. 49 of the griffins of the west, is given us by Ktesias,! who was physician to the Persian king Artaxerxes Mnemon (405-302 B.C.) This concludes the series of the types found in older Buddhist art. lhe question now is, how the composition is to be executed. The form of composition, with which every art begins, is the pure narrative. In what follows we shall try to discover how far the art of the Asoka period (including Safchi) represented this narrative tendency, and how the national character made itself felt thereby. On the reliefs of the great gateways of Safichi is a series of representations of different kinds. Many are purely decorative, others represent perfectly definite historical events. Very few have, as yet, been fully explained, and for those that have been correctly explained, the convincing proof is not yet forthcoming; but they may be divided into two distinct categories. The first category, by the help of numerous figures in a series of formally composed scenes, all resembling one another, depicts—processions to holy places, to sacred trees, to stüpas, «etc. On the panel itself there nowhere appears an indication which sufficiently characterizes the incident to enable us to determine it from itself | alone. Only inscriptions, like those found at Barähat, could—so to speak—make of those incidents historical events. The elements that determine the incidents are solely external,as we shall see below. Along with the representations of human beings (of which those seen in illus. 4 and 17 are, as it were, conventional abridgements), we meet with others in which forms of existence other than human come to worship at the holy places. Here, again, a national Indian element makes itself felt—the fondness for the repetition of ritual- istic phrases, which thereby become more sacred and efficacious. The animal world, again, shares also in the worship of the sacred places. Along with animal-representations, that are uncommonly true to life, come in throngs the monsters of mythology, to adore the places where a saint has lived, in order to obtain a better in- carnation. The juxtaposition of mythical and real animals has a highly startling effect: it looks as if the uncommonly animated and characteristically represented animal world was intended to impart a greater probability of existence to the fantastic creatures of very varied styles depicted beside them. While the latter, the Tiryagyoni-type, Garuda, etc., stand stiffly in rows (conf. illus. 26), the life of the real animals makes itself felt ; alongside a Garuda, adorned with earrings and carrying a ee an antelope (cervi capra—Indian gazelle or spotted antelope, Skt. Krishrasara). in a curious position, is trimming itself. The religious act—in a truly Indian fashion—becomes a Nature-scene. 1 Lassen, Ind. Alterthumskunde, Bd. II, Ss. 644, 661; ind. Ant., vol. X, pp. 229-331. GENRE SCENES IN NARRATIVE RELIEFS. 59 If, owing to the objects represented, this change appears a very natural one, neither is it lacking in the representations of human beings. Ill. 34 shows the end of a long procession leaving a thickly peopled city. The gate of the city is of the same form as the gates of Safichi, though much simpler; the great volute looks almost like the rolled-up tongue of a dragon; the houses of the town are provided with open galleries, from which the inhabitants (men and a : 2 if | N Be ye a Ke Ei ces \ ee) =f 34. REPRESENTATION OF A CITY. From the second architrave of the east gateway of the great stüpa at Safichi. women) look down. This looking down from house-terraces is an element that became frequent in Greek art— very late, it is true— for the animation of the background; it belongs essentially to the old Indian art, which owes this form to the representation of towns in west Asian art. It forms a part of the composition—the re- joicing of the inhabitants of the town, who are witnessing the procession, is thus presented, exactly as ancient and modern Indian texts—and the Chinese pilgrims also—describe such feasts. The separation into little groups, each of which has its own interest, also begins here. The Indian character cannot endurerthe stitily historic, and breaks ape whe Whole te: a series of oenre-scemes: The thickly-peopled terraces are the models of the superimposed storeys of the different heavens in the Buddhist universe. A genre-scene in ill. 34, which has nothing to do with the main incident, shows a woman who has come through a postern in the city wall to fill her löfä with water from a pool. In the pool are growing water-lilies in flower; a second woman comes down the 60 REPRESENTATIONS OF THE HEAVENS. same street to the pool, and this figure is made so large that the gate lintel passes right across her body like a paling. It is difficult to determine whether the elephant rider, or mahaut!, coming along the street on an elephant, belongs to the end of the procession (conf. ill. 39), or is taking the elephant to the water ; but the latter is more probabie. I shall return to these narrative-reliefs again. The second category represents scenes from the life of the founder of Buddhism, or-from his pre- vious existences, the Jatakas, . In the. case of these reliefs also, very few are satisfactorily explained, for the character- istic elements almost disappear beneath the accessories. We are therefore obliged to seek for purely external proofs (the arrange- ment of the sculptures on the monument itself); and the result is curious. Few of the scenes represented are so clear and simple as the relief on the inner side of the right pillar of the east gateway, above. It undoubtedly represents the dream of Mäyä, the mother of Buddha, in the briefest and simplest form. Above the sleeping woman is seen descending the elephant, in the form of which, according to the legend, Buddha came down to his mother. One is struck by the paucity of detail: the detached treatment of this really notable representation. Its place, too (up in the corner above a rich com- position of a different kind), is remarkable. Involuntarily one seeks for something corresponding. The highest panel of the inner side is a-continuation of what is seen on the front. The front of the pillar is filled by a large relief consisting of three double stages, z.e. storeys. Each of these storeys is divided into three compartments by pillars. In each middle compartment there sits a god with the thunderbolt and a round bottle as attributes. The space behind the god shows a second god, clearly subordinate, and ‘daughters of the gods’ with sunshades and whisks (Hind. chaurt). In these divisions there is always a group of dancing girls playing on instruments before the principal divinity. The background is filled up with fruit trees. Ill. 1 shows the fourth storey, counting upwards. The two below it are much injured, but still it may be clearly seen that the repre- sentation of the second storey corresponded with those that have been preserved, while the lowest of all was filled with weeping and mourning figures seated in a circle. At the very top of the relief there is, on the roof, a group of gods and goddesses. Unfor- tunately, this group is also much injured. If this highest terrace, the roof of the whole structure, is not counted, one is naturally reminded of the six Devalokas,the six inferior heavens? of the gods. All six form the so-called Kämävachara heavens, the ' Hind. Mahiwat, Sansk. Mahdmdtra; the German has Kornak, Fr. Cornac. See Yule and Burnell’s Glossary, s.v. 2 As to the heavens of the gods, the Kämävacharas and Suddhäväsas (Tib. Gnas-gtsan-mai-lha) —an obscure expression—are attested at Barähat by inscriptions. Conf. Hultzsch, Zeit. d. Deut. Morg. Ges., Bd. XL, 8. 65, Nrs. 47, 48, 49. THE HEAVENS OF THE GODS. 61 abodes of the gods in which desire is still potent. Now it was supposed that when a Bodhisattva, a pre-existent Buddha, attained the lowest heaven, great lamentations broke out among the gods, who feared the end of an earthly period. A thousand years after- wards the cries ofthe guardians ofthe world (Lokapäladevatä—the gods of the lowest terrace) proclaim that in a thousand years a Buddha will be born upon the earth: the so-called Buddhahalä- halam. The gods of the lowest terrace are represented lamenting; the subject must, therefore, be the birth of a being who is to be- come a Buddha. The panel is thus the beginning of all the pillar reliefs, and is continued on the inner side of the same pillar. The heavens are to be named as follows, beginning from below: the heaven of the Chaturmahäräjika-gods, z.e. the four great kings or guardians of the world; the heaven of the Tävatimsa-gods (Sk. Trayastrimsat), the so-called ‘three and thirty’ superior angels over whom Sakka presides; the heaven of the Yämäs, where there is no change of day and night; the Tusita-heaven (San. Tushita), where all Bodhisattvas are born before appearing on earth, and where Maitreya now is; the heaven of the Nimmanarati (Sk. Nir- mänarati), who create their own pleasures; and of the Paranim- mitavasavatti-gods, who indulge in pleasures created for them by others, and over whom Mara presides. These mighty terraces of the gods, mounting one above the other, over which again rise the meditative steps, belong to the grandest ideas which Buddhism has produced. The whole representation—this is not the place to examine it fully—with the ways of deliverance and the cataclysms which destroy whole worlds and put new creations in their place, had to be specially noticed here, for it is capable of affording us the necessary explanation of the representation on the other pillar (front side). If we return to the reliefs which represent scenes from Buddha’s life, we shall find that some of those on the left pillar of the east gateway are highly instructive as regards ancient Indian relief- composition. The first of them, which is found on the middle of the inner side of the pillar (conf. ill. 35) has already been correctly identified, so far at least as determining the incident is concerned, although the naming of the individual figures may not be quite correct. Towards the bottom and to the right on the panel is seen a bearded man with bands of hair (jatd) twisted about his head turbanwise ; the knees of the crouching figure are held together by a band. This man (from his costume, evidently a Brähmana doing penance) is seated on the threshold of a hut thatched with leaves. Before him is a pond with aquatic birds and shell-fish ; lotus- flowers are in bloom upon the water. Buffaloes and an elephant come to quench their thirst. A bearded ascetic is bathing, another is drawing water, with which to sprinkle his body in the bath, in a vessel shaped like the /étd, which even at the present day answers this purpose. What has already been described is a rough repre- sentation (on a remarkably small space, though it is fairly broad) 62 KASYAPA LEGEND. ofa Tirtha:or bathing-place at a river flowing past a Brähma»a hermitage. Higher up, in the middle of the relief, may be seen a temple-like house, before which a fire burns upon an altar; a second vessel containing fire lies further forward, with tongs and fuel; on the left side, approach unbearded figures carrying fuel; the ordinary occupations of the Brähmana-disciples are thus repre- sented. A row of Brähmanas stand round the temple in the attitude of adoration ; the background is composed of fruit trees, on which monkeys are climbing. Towards the man sitting before the leaf- covered hut, comes another Brahmawa from the right to announce what is going on in the fire-temple; in the middle of the temple sits a seven-hooded "snake; flames burst forth from the windows in the roof. This relief re- presemis\ascene from the story of the conversion,at Buddha’s hands, of Käsyapa (Päli, Kassapa) of Uru- vulvarcbali, rue vela),a Brahmana ascetic, with his brothers and disciples.‘ “Phe figure sitting be- fore the hut is Käsyapa; to at- 35. RELIEF OF THE EAST GATEWAY AT SANCHT. tempt to name Left pillar, middle of the inner side. The first scene the other Brah- of the conversion of Uruvilva-Kasyapa. manas would be useless. The legend is somewhat to the following effect: When Buddha wished to lead all in the right way, he went to Uruvilva and begged for permission to dwell in the fire-hut. It was granted him; though Käsyapa warned him of a mighty snake that lived in the temple. Buddha caught it in his alms-bowl and sending forth flames of fire, which burst out at the roof, left the hut unharmed.! In the main, the whole incident is well rendered on the relief, !On the Kasyapa legend, conf. Fergusson, Tree and Serp. Worsh., pp, 143f.; Beal, Rom. Legend, pp. 292f.; S. Hardy, Man. of Bud., pp. 193f.; Bigandet, Legend of Gautama, vol. I, pp. 138f.; and Cunningham Arch, Sur, Ind., vol. XI, pp. 149f, NONI OMRU NI ES CBRINERSEFEINSTEINZEINIS, SEEIFESCUTBMURES: 63 though at the first glance there seems to be a great deal that is superfluous. The Brahmaza disciples are not necessary to the representation of the incident; the Brahmaza bathing is quite superfluous, and the one with the /étd just as unnecessary, unless one supposes—what seems hardly probable—that he is fetching water to extinguish the fire. In short, the whole prolix and idyllic representation of the pond is a superfluous accessory. But the main point is—Buddha himself is not present at all. 36. RELIEF FROM THE EAST GATEWAY AT SANCHi. Left pillar, middle of the front side. he second scene in the Kasyapa legend. _ More remarkable still is another and allied relief on the middle panel of the face of the left pillar (ill. 36). If one looks for nothing but the depicting of the situation, and puts aside any thought of a representation of Buddha, the incident can be explained as on the previous relief. he locality is determined by six large fruit trees, to which, though roughly outlined, botanical names can never- theless be given. On one of these trees are perched two apes, 64 NATURAL SCENERY ENLIVENS THE SCULPTURES. one occupied in plucking fruit. But the trees are standing in water; the surface of the water is full of animation ; aquatic birds are swimming about upon it; one dips its head under ; another, with neck bent backwards, is preening its wings; and a pelican is devouring a fish. The waves, on the relief itself, rise very high indeed over the outer lines of the fruit trees; lotus-flowers, with very animated-looking leaves that do not lie flat, appear on the water, and a snail is tossed about on the waves ; above, in a corner, is seen an alligator. The water is thus in continual movement; the aquatic birds behave as if they had just gone into it. This must represent the overflowing of a river, or, at any rate, the flood- ing of a place planted with fruit trees.! In the middle of this landscape, three men are sailing in a boat. The one sitting in the middle is bearded, and his hair is twisted about his head turban- wise; he is therefore a Brähma»a. A bearded man, like the former, and one without a beard but with long hair,—therefore Brahmanas too,—are rowing in the boat, which is made of planks roughly joined together. This shape of boat is still in use in India, on the Madras coast and elsewhere. Now among the miracles by which Gautama Buddha is said to have converted Uruvilvä-Käsyapa and his school, it is related that the river Nairanjanä was very much swollen, and that Buddha passed over the flooded place as if there had been no water there. The amazed Kasyapa followed him in a boat, but did not become his convert yet. The situation is thus broadly depicted here—but Buddha, the principal figure, is wanting. On the lower part of the same relief, before a high stone plinth, are seen four men; behind them is a stone bench before a tree hung with votive offerings; it is therefore a second composition, which is connected with the former. The men, to judge from their dress, are Brähmazas. The hands of the middle figure, which are raised over its head, as well as the peculiarly high placed heels of the feet (unfortunately, these are partly broken off), prove that the figure is conceived as lying full length on the ground: the touching of the ground with eight limbs (ashtdnga) is hereby intended. The flowers near the figure, seen from above, seem to indicate that it is to be regarded as in a recumbent attitude. Similarly, the slab of the altar in ill. 38 is represented as seen from above, so that the flower offerings on it are shown. The Brähmanas standing beside the recumbent Brahmaza in an attitude of prayer have upright growing plants beside them to indicate that they are standing upon the ground. On the cast in the Museums, behind the figure in the ashtdnga-position and below the projecting stone, no wavy line is to be seen, as on Col. Maisey’s drawing (Fergusson's 7ree and Serp. Worship, pl. xxxi, 2, p.141). As the water which fills the middle ground is regarded as a surface seen from above, it thus happens that the background of the worshipping Brähmana is 'S, Beal, Romantic Legend of Sakya Buddha, pp. xi, note, and 302, SUCCESSION OF SCENES. 65 looked upon asa platform. But this platform, with its far-projecting edge, is, it appears, mentioned in the legend of the conversion of Käsyapa of Uruvilva. Buddha, as the story goes, found a hempen garment which he picked up and wanted to wash in the river. Dakka presented him with va fat stone for the purpose. Now with these explanations, in which justice is done to all the figures represented, and the characteristic common to all of which is—that they only witness to Buddha’s existence, but do not actually represent the sage himself, it is possible to connect a third relief belonging to the same cycle of legends. Below the representation of the miracle of the snake, on the inner side of the pillar, is another relief (conf. ill. 37), the place of which on the pillar and the Brähmanas represented therein, clearly characterize it as being connected therewith. In a wood, planted with fruit trees, three Brahmawas are busy kindling sacrificial fires ; a Brahmawza disciple is bringing wood for fuel; a second carries a pole (H. dahangi, S. vihangrkd) supporting vessels in a network. 37. RELIEF ON THE EAST GATEWAY AT SANCHi. Left pillar, inner side, under relief No. 35. Two other bearded Brahmawas are splitting wood with heavy (stone?) hatchets. A round hive-like building decorated with shells and enclosed by a railing forms the background. Whether this building, as I am inclined to think, represents merely a hermit’s hut thus railed in as a protection from wild beasts, or something else is uncertain. The whole is a genre picture, and without the reliefs explained above, it would be impossible to determine its nature, so far as the persons and the occasion of the sacrifice are concerned, 66 CROWDING OF ACCESSORIES. The legend of Käsyapa’s conversion relates that, after the miracle of the snake,a sacrifice was offered. When the Brahmazas tried to light a fire the wood, owing to Gautama’s power, would not burn. They made their trouble known to Käsyapa, who entreated Gautama to let the fire kindle. When Gautama gave his consent the wood took fire, and there was nothing to prevent the sacrifice. Now these three reliefs give one a good insight into the relief- composition of ancient India. It stands on a level with that of the Middle Ages in the Western world. The same legend is continued on one relief; the same figures may therefore be repeated on the same panel. Land and water are always repre- sented as extending horizontally ; in consequence of this, the figures are of the same size throughout. The limits of land and water are indicated by sharply defined outlines; fiowers and plants are employed to determine whether the figures represented are supposed to be lying or standing. Along with this may be noticed a naive aptitude for converting the area into a landscape in which the principal groups occupy the centre. External details alone explain the incident depicted. Thus the only certain deter- mining factor to explain the three panels examined above is the circumstance that the persons represented are Brähmazas. Then the first relief may be explained by means of the snake and the flames bursting from the window in the roof; all the rest represents nothing but an ordinary sacrifice, and the second, or even the third panel, would be utterly unintelligible without the first. One way of laying stress on the characteristic features is the decided pro- minence of the object emphasized in the relief. The reliefs narrate the incident in extenso, adding also details that are not essential. As in the representations of the Middle Ages, the whole story of the sufferings of a believer is given on one relief or one picture, which is divided into a series of consecutive scenes: so is it in the Buddhist art, which in one relief combines a series of continuous events into a Nature-picture. Now the admirable rendering of nature, with the loose representation of accessory details, is apt to lead astray, because it overpowers the main motive. Something exactly analogous occurs in Indian literature, especially in the so-called Advyas and the half-epic, half-lyric works related to them. The treatment itself becomes merely an opportunity for introducing descriptions of nature, and com- parisons with nature that are broad and sensuous—often delightful though sometimes repulsive, or at least bizarre. In this law—the rudiments of which are perceptible in ancient Indian reliefs, but which reigns supreme in the literature of a later period—chiefly lie the difficulties to the ordinary European mind in understanding their modes of thought; but, at the same time, to it is due the peculiar beauty of this tropical life, bursting forth so luxuriantly on every side. In the art of the Asoka period—on which that of NO FIGURE OF BUDDHA: ONLY “A SYMBOL. 67 Saficht was modelled—everything is still naive, and no trace of refinement exists. As already mentioned, no picture of Buddha appears on the reliefs of this older period. Only the signs of his activity were represented ; the footprints (fadah) which he left behind him, or the sacred tree beneath which he, or one of his mythical pre- decessors,. obtained enlightenment, or even a Sttipa erected in memory of him, are represented as being universally venerated. To these are added the symbols of his miracles: as snake and fire in the case of Käsyapa, and so on. The wheel (dharmachakra), as already mentioned. was adopted by Buddha's disciples as the symbol of his doctrine, and combined with other symbols—a trident placed above it, etc—stands for him on the sculptures of the Asoka period.! From the Buddhist literature it clearly appears how irreparable was the loss sustained by the death of the Sage. Schisms soon broke out: there was no proper cult. Everything had to be developed, and it was a slow process. The wonderful growth of the more modern religion must not cause us to forget its simple and small beginnings. As long as the doctrine of the ‘Overcomer’ was pure, a Buddha cult could not be thought of; the tendency to this first made itself felt when the figure of the Sage was deified. _ Originally, Buddhism was only a philosophy, no religion: but therein consisted the weakness of the Buddha doctrines, which speedily became unpopular on that account.” When in the course of time the religion fell back into a worship of gods, the cult picture appeared. The countless legends which are related of the oldest Buddha pictures describe plainly the embarrassment oc- casioned when such a representation had to be made. The ability 1 In these different scenes, Bharhut, with its reliefs determined by the inscriptions, is very characteristic as compared with Saiichi and even Amarävati. The Dharma or Chakra symbol is adored by gods and men, who approach with offerings or with folded hands; purely external accessories determine the scene: thus the wheel and two gazelles are the representation of the discourse at Banaras, in the deer-park; Tree and Serp. Wor., pl. xxix, 2 (Safichi); pl. lxxi, 2 (Amarävati), etc.—even in modern Lamaist art, cf. the emblem on the roof of a Mongolian temple at Pozdneev, Zap. geogr. Obsheh., XVI, 1887, pl. on p. 38; the Dharma symbol with fire pillars sur- rounded by Brähmanas, the representation of the conversion of Käsyapa (Tree and Serp. Wor., pl. xx). Another emblematic representation is the celestial ladder, with footprints above and below, for the descent of the Bodhisattva from Tushita; Bharhut, pl. xvii (middle), also at Sänicht, Tree and Serp. Wor., pl. xxviii, 3; conf. 8. Beal, ut sup., p. 188. From this comes the idea that the descending elephant beside the sleep- ing Mäyä isa dream. The Bodhisattva descending on the ladder, appears, however, also in Gandhära sculptures. To this subject also belongs a modern picture from Kamboja in the Berlin Museum. 2 If in Buddhism the proud attempt be made to conceive a deliverance in which man himself delivers himself, to create a faith without a god, it is Brahmanical speculation which has prepared the way for this thought. It has thrust back the idea of a god step by step; the forms of the old gods have faded away, and besides the Brahma, which is enthroned in its eternal quietude, highly exalted above the destinies of the human world, there is left remaining, as the sole really active person in the great work of deliverance, man himself, who possesses—iuherent in himself—the power to turn aside from this world, this hopeless state of sorrow.—Oldenberg, Buddha, &e.,p.53. 68 BUDDHA REPRESENTED BY SYMBOL. STATUES. s to create an ideal type was lacking, so a portrait was chosen which the artists beautified beyond nature, and which they tried to make authentic by tales of miracles that Buddha had wrought. Thus the Divyävadäna relates that Bimbisära, king of Magadha, desired to have a representation of Buddha painted on a cloth. The artist tried and failed. Then Buddha let his shadow fall upon it, com- manded that the outlines should be filled in with colour, and that the chief articles of the faith should be written upon it. This is an artistic authentication of a modern picture, as clearly no portrait was extant.! This point will be found of value in a subsequent chapter, for it proves that there was no desire to create an ideal type. In a modern branch of Buddhist art, in the miniatures of the Lamaist church of Tibet and China, notwithstanding the narrow limits of the canon, the individual appears surprisingly beautiful. It is, indeed, the only really artistic point in the endless series of absurd rites of the degenerate hierarchical representations. But the ideal type of Buddha—which spiritualized the simple monk's figure, and, notwithstanding the want of ornament, stood out from all else, —was created for Buddhist art by foreigners. The doctrine of Buddha’s Nirväza can hardly be taken as afford- ing the reason for the fact that on the reliefs of Barahat, Gaya, and Sanchi the Buddha does not appear. The doctrine of the Nirväna, in its present canonical form, was probably not developed at all at that time. Later, when statues of Buddha were already in existence, the legends paid no attention whatever to the dogmatic conception: according to a legend handed down by the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang, for example, Buddha, who long before had disappeared into Nirvaza, came down from heaven to exhort the statue of Buddha, which king Udayana had made to serve the faithful as the symbol of the doctrine that brings salvation. In the ancient Buddhist art, so far as the representation of the founder of the religion is concerned, the conditions are the same as in ancient Christian art: symbols, such as the fish, the lamb, etc., were employed at first by the early Christians, as types reminding them of Christ. The type of the Christ was long a fluctuating one, until that of Byzantium became universal. So it was in Buddhist art: the Gändhära type, which will be examined in greater detail below, became the prevailing one. Tier single«pamels peceme comprehensible only by virtue of their connection one with another. For the chief figure does. not appear in their composition. If we return to the reliefs of the left pillar, we are struck above all by the fact that these three reliefs of the Käsyapa legend, the scene of which was at Gayä, are so much separated from one another. From what was said above (p. 60) about the manner in 1 Udayana Vatsarija of Kausambi, and Prasenajit of Kosala are said to have had statues made of Buddha before his death. Beal, Si-yu-ki, vol. I, pp. 235-6; Eitel, Handbk. of Chin, Buddhism, pp. 137-8. ASOKA CHAPEL AT GAYA, 69 3 which the heavens are represented, we expected something com- pensating sufficiently on the left pillar. As middle panel on the left pillar we have a representation of a great tree so built about by a chapel, that the main branches grow out of one of the windows. Rows of men, in the attitude of prayer, stand round about it; gods areflyingtowardsit through the air to crown it with garlands. By means of rows of men at prayer, which fillthe upper panel, the composition is made to balance, to some extent, that of the right pillar, even astoform. Now the tree, the worship of which is so important, that he ould bie “placed opposite the palace of the gods on the right pillaras a counter- NEFrFrereen FR] poise, and in fact in such |X ee ‚ N SANT a way that the Käsyapa m NN: SS Pi 7 a; 1 A : ES NN > legend had to be divided CNS ony ES ın two, can be none other than the Bodhi treg of Gayä with the chapel which king Asoka had built round about it. The representation of the fig tree at Buddha Gayä, which is shown on the reliefs of Barähat, is indeed identical with our Safchi Ds nun (fig. 38)." (Cunningham, Bharhut, pll. xii and xxx). In We see, therefore, that the middle is the Bodhi-tree of Gautama Buddha. the desire for symmetry ‘The REST a er A paemon ee a fhe agin Mime Me RR vailed among Indian archi- Pasenaji Kosalo”—the King Prasenajit, the tects, though not in the Kosala. | strict form in which we are accustomed to it from Greco-Roman art. The reliefs, so far as their explanation is concerned, always refer one to the other. The main difficulty for us consists in separating the decorative elements from those that are important in the composition. Now those external determining points in the com- 38. RELIEF FROM THE SO-CALLED PRASENAJIT PILLAR FROM BARAHAT. ' Hultzsch, Zeit. d. Morg. Ges., Bd. XL, S 64, No. 46; Cunningham, Bharhut, No. 28, p. 134 and pl. xiii; Räjendraläl Mitra, Buddha Gaya, p. 96. 70 ARRANGEMENT OF RELIEFS: FIRST ANDSECOND ARCHITRAVES. « positions are most apparent and most interesting on the architrave of the east gateway. Above the pillars there rise three transoms, which we shall call architraves ; the lowest of them rests upon the capitals, while the next two are laid upon supporting blocks, which are about as high as the architraves themselves. At the places where they rest upon these supports, the beams are covered with carved panels: the whole is of the nature of a timbered scaffolding in which the cross-beams are fitted in beneath ornamented panels. Now we notice that, of the six panels on the front, the two upper- most are carved each with a pair of zebu-riders, and on the other side all the six represent similar mounted groups. Only the two lower ones on the front are sculptured each with three winged lions. If we look more closely at them we see that all the carved surfaces of the architraves—that is, of the three on the back and the uppermost on the front—have purely decorative reliefs, which are continued beyond the panels ; only the two lowest on the front present compositions full of figures and of the processional kind described above. Another thing that strikes one is that the repre- sentations on the architraves, which project beyond the inlaid panels, do zo¢ continue the central compositions of the first and second architraves on the front. (Conf. ill. 39). The relief on the central portion of the first architrave, reckoning from below (front), belongs to the narrative representations, which we discussed on p. 57. In the middle is to be seen a large fig tree with the same kind of building (a chaitya) encircling it as on the relief of the left pillar: it is, therefore, once more the Bodhi tree at Gaya. A large and solemn procession is winding round it, To the right, on the relief, a man in royal garb is getting down from his elephant, supported by a dwarf, surrounded and attended by women; chariots with warriors, elephants with mahäuts, archers and musicians, fill up the background. On the left, a great pro- cession approaches with flowers, vessels with perfumed water, flags, etc.; a large band of music, with drums of different kinds, fifes, and conch shells as trumpets, fill up the rest of the relief. It is therefore a procession to the Bodhi-tree at Gaya, perhaps on the occasion of Mahinda’s embassy to Ceylon (conf. p. 26). The winged lions in the inlaid panels may possibly be intended to suggest this. Lions are the armorial bearings of Ceylon: ‘the lion island, —Simhaladvipa (Pali, Sthaladipa). ‘The ends of the archi- traves, in the corners under the volutes, have a pair of peacocks of unusual size in their reliefs on both sides. On the right end a pair of lovers is represented behind the peacocks. In Pali the peacock is called Mora (Sansk. Mayüra); and as peacocks are the symbol of the Maurya! dynasty, their representation on the first architrave might indicate that the central incident, which refers to Ceylon, takes place in India. The middle relief of the second architrave shows a small fig 1 Conf. Turnour, The Mahävansa, in Roman characters, p. Xx xix. RELIEFS OF THE EAST GATEWAY AT SÄNCHI. 7a tree in the centre ; this—if the previous relief has been correctly explained—may indicate the newly -planted slip. Again a great procession appears, just leaving asetty. Ehe princes: have dis- GREAT STIPA AT S HAST GATEWAY OF THE ARCHITRAVES OF THE 39. mounted; their horses are following the procession. The right side of the relief shows a king kneeling before footmarks!—pre- sumably Buddha’s—surrounded by servants with sacrificial vessels, ‘Yule, Travels of Marco Polo, vol. II, p. 260. 72 BUDDHA'S FOOTPRINT. SÄNCHI RELIEFS. umbrellas, etc.—evidently the worship of the Buddhapäda, the foot- prints of Buddha, which he is said to have left on the Sumanaküfa (Adam’s Peak) on the occasion of his mythical visit to Ceylon. There a giant footprint has been regarded as sacred from ancient times and for all the religions prevailing in Ceylon! On the reception of Buddhism, it became a proof that Buddha had walked upon the island, and thus was taken as a pattern for similar foot- prints in Further India, &c. The ends of the architraves, next the volutes, show wild elephants in the jungle as companion pieces to the peacocks of the first architrave; and to correspond with the pair of lovers, a naked man and woman, both with bow and arrows. As, judging from the wild elephants, we are in Ceylon, these may be meant for Veddas. Thus both reliefs are intimately connected with the story of the building at Sanchi given on p. 26. Itis an extremely interesting fact that, not only at the Christian era, but even in the days of Asoka, the footmark on Adam’s Peak was considered as the print of Buddha’s foot. No doubt, for the missionaries of the faith sent from India, it was a decisive proof of the true doctrine, when so striking an instance of Buddha’s visit to the island was given to them on the occasion of their bringing over the slip of the Bodhi- tree. The Buddhapäda, which existed later at Gaya, is now wor- shipped as the footprint of Vishzu. Reliefs of the east gateway at Säücht. Casts of this gateway were made in 1869 and are set up in the S. Kensington, Edinburgh and Dublin Museums of Science and Art, in the Royal Ethnological Museum at Berlin, at Paris, &c. (See above, p. 25). . The following is a brief description of the sculptures upon it. The only representations we yet possess of those on the other gateways are given in Fergusson’s Tree and Serpent Worship (1873). Right pillar, front: Palace of the gods. Inner side: wor- ship of a sacred tree—the fig-tree at Gayä, where Buddha obtained enlightenment; below, the dream of Maya; the Bodhisattva comes down from the region of the Tusita gods in the form of a white elephant. Below, a large relief presents a great town, in the streets ‘ of which meet riders and men on elephants. ‘The windows of the houses are full of people, women with parrots in their hands look down into the streets. A chariot with a young man clearly charac- terised as a prince is leaving the city: a band of musicians goes before. Archers and an elephant with its mahäwat accompany the chariot of the prince. It is perhaps the procession of the youthful ! Locally known to the Tamils as Sivadippitham (Siva’s footprint) and Dharma- rajakkal (Buddha’s rock). The Muhammadans say Adam alighted on it when expelled from Paradise, and call it al-Rahun See E. Tennant, Ceylon, vol. II, pp. 132-6; and Skeen, Adam’s Peak.—J.B. 2 Since p. 25 was printed off, Mr. H. Cousens has sent me his re-measurement of the Sänchi stüpa. The diameter of the dome at the top of the ramp or plinth is 106 feet, and of the encircling rail, outside measurement, 143 feet from E. to W.and only 1464 from N. to 8.—J.B. SANCHi EAST GATEWAY. 73 Gautama on which the four appearances mentioned above (p. 13) were met with. This view is to some extent supported by the fact that on the lowest relief a fig-tree is again represented (the later Bodhi-tree, or the other one at Gaya, under which Gautama, ac- cording to the legend, first meditated?). Before the tree are five men in lay costume, worshipping (Fergusson, Zree and Serp Wor. p.145 and pll. xiii, xvii and xxxiii). The under half of the inner side represents a large figure of a man, in royal dress, resembling that on the left pillar. These figures appear to correspond to the Yaksha at the entrance of the Nasik chaitya temple (p. 36). Left pillar, front: above, two rows of men worshipping. Below, the Bodhi-tree surrounded by the chapel over an altar or table bearing the trisula symbol (conf. p. 69). (Fergusson, Z’ree and Serp. Wor., pil. xiii, xvi and xxv, 3). Below that, the water miracle of Uruvilva (p. 63). The lowest panel is uninterpreted. The representation is divided into two scenes: on the right is a thickly peopled city, through whose streets pass a rider and a mahäwat on an elephant. The smaller half, clearly defined as a separate incident, shows two men in rich dress,—one in the attitude of a teacher, the other in a listening, devotional pose with folded hands. Inner side, upper panel: in the foreground is a pond with lotuses; buffaloes, zebus and goats stand on the bank, two buffaloes are up to their necks in the water. Beyond the pond is seen a large stone slab with an awning and two men worshipping. A young man with a sling-pole for carrying vessels (dahang7) stands behind the pond or river surrounded by women; a woman draws water with a lo/ä, others hold their lo¢as in their arms. The middle ground is occupied by a large house with adjoining build- ings ; near it are women engaged in preparing rice: one woman pounds the rice in a mortar, another cleans rice on a winnow, a third makes cakes, a fourth, who is occupied in the same way, is talking with a man (Zree and Serp. Wor., p.150 and pl. xxxv, 2): probably the meal which Sujata, with the help of the gods, prepared for Gautama, and the stone slab on which he partook of it, before he began the last decisive meditation which was to bring him enlightenment. The panels beneath represent the fire-miracle at Uruvilva (conf. above, p. 62, 66). The lower half of the inner face is filled by a man (or Yaksha) in royal dress. The backs of the pillars, right at the top only, have each a small relief; on the left with a stüpa, on the right with a sacred tree which is worshipped by gods and men. The outsides of both pillars show rich patterns of lotus- flowers ; on the right side is a flower pattern only (conf. p. 19); on the left side, a large garland which is alive with little aquatic birds and springs from the jaws of a large makara. The capitals of the pillars are filled with men richly dressed, bearing flags and seated on elephants. Outside and joined to each capital is a dancing girl, or a Devi, on a large scale, under a tree—the one on the right being quite preserved (conf. p. 42). 74 SÄNCHI EAST GATEWAY. The first architrave: front, inlaid panels,—winged lions; middle relief: Mahinda at Gaya, see p. 70 (Tree and Serp. Wor., pl. xv, 2). Outside: peacocks. Second architrave: front, applied panels: winged lions ; see ill. pp. 18 and 71. Middle relief: the Bodhi-tree at Anurädha- pura (?), adoration of the Buddhapäda ; see p.69. Outside: wild elephants; see p. 72 (Tree and Serp. Wor., pl. xv, 1). Third architrave: front—applied panels: zebu riders. Middle and ends of the beam: five stüpas and two sacred trees, worshipped by gods and men. The blocks supporting the architraves bear on the front the following reliefs : between the first and second to the left,—a wheel (dharmachakra) adored by gods and men; to the right, the god- dess Siri on lotus flowers, &c.; see p. 39; between the second and third, to the left, the goddess Sirt; to the right, a sacred tree with gods and men. First architrave: back, applied panels: on each a man and a woman with peculiar coiffure, riding on goats. Middle relief and ends of beams,—elephants bring BUR of flowers (lotus-flowers) to a stupa (Tree and Serp. Wor., pl. xv, 4). Second Anchitraye: back, applied panels,—on each a man and a woman riding on dromedaries. Middle relief and ends of beams,—the animal kingdom adores a holy tree, the different animals bringing branches, flowers and blossoms ; see p. 48 (Tree and Serp. Wor., pl. xv, 3). Third architrave: back, applied panels,—on each a man and a woman riding on horned and winged lions, clearly foreign types (conf. ill. p. 34). The middle and the ends. of the beams show seven holy trees adored by gods and men, evidently the Bodhi-trees of the six predecessors of Buddha and that of the Buddhas—Vipassi, Sikhi, Vessabhü, Kakusandha, Kozägamana, Kassapa and Gotama which are also represented at Barähat, as the inscriptions witness. The blocks supporting the architraves show, on the back the following reliefs: between the first and second architraves,— groups of lotus flowers ; between the second and third architraves, —on each a stüpa with gods and men. Between the ends of the architraves stand figures, some of which are still preserved: statuary groups of men on elephants and dancing-girls under trees. The small pillars which support the architraves bear in their reliefs lion-pillars (see p. 20), or simply ornaments. How the remaining spaces between the small middle pillars, or the highest architrave between the wheel-symbols, was further ornamented we do not know. On the other Säfchi gate- ways, small figures of riders and statuettes of different sizes are employed as additional decorations: motifs that remind one of the throne of Vikramaditya (see p. 29). Above each pillar there was once a symbol of Beer the wheel with the trisula over it (see p. Ig and note 2). a “ Foe at ah ei Fes a etl 2 _ 40. THE INFANT BUDDHA TAKING THE SEVEN STEPS (from Swät). EIERN IP deiS Res ible lte THE GANDHARA SCULPTURES (SO-CALLED GRACO-BUDDHIST SCULPTURES). By Gändhära sculptures are designated the numerous images, carved friezes, pillars, &c., excavated from the ancient ruins of Buddhist monasteries and stüpas on the north-west frontier of India. They have been variously styled Greeco-Buddhist, Aryan, Indo-Greek, and Indo-Baktrian—terms which are open to the objection of implying a theory respecting their art origin. ‘They are all but entirely connected with Buddhist iconography, and many of them manifest some western or classical influence. And since they are found almost exclusively in the country which early writers named Gandhära, they may very properly be characterized by the area of their origin. The country of the Gandarioi, Gandare and Gandaritis is mentioned by Herodotos,! Hekataios, Ptolemy and Strabo. The Gandarioi furnished their contingent to the army of Darius in the invasion of Greece. Their country occupied the whole lower valley of the Käbül river—the ancient Kophen or Kubhä—from the Kau or Alingar river near the meridian of 70° W. longitude to the Indus, and from the Safid Koh range and the Kohat Toi river on the south to the borders of Kohistän, Chitral and the Hindu Kush on the north. It thus embraced the whole of the modern Afridi and Momand country, Swat, Bajaur, Bunér, &c. At one period, at least, it seems even to have included 1 Herodotos, bk. vii, c. 65, 66; conf. bk. iii, c. 91; iv, 44. 76 GANDHARA. POLITICAL HISTORY. within its limits the great city of Takshasilä in the Rawal Pindi district, to the east of the Indus,—forming an area 170 miles from east to west, and above 100 miles from north to south.! The province between the Swat and Indus rivers, or the modern district of Yüsufzai and northwards to Kohistän, was known as Udyäna or Ujjana (Gr. Suasténé), and sometimes probably formed a separate principality. It was through the northern districts of this country that Alexander led his army into India. On the rise of the Graeco- Baktrian kingdom, in the middle of the following century, Gandhara was included in it. The political events which followed the short reign of Alexander the Great in India terminated with the founding of two great states—the kingdom of the Prasioi with its capital PäZaliputra (Gr. Palimbothra, the modern Pä/nä) in the east; and the Gr&co- Baktrian kingdom, which retained for a time parts of India, the Panjäb, and portions of the North-Western Provinces of to-day. The heirs of the Greco-Baktrian kingdom and of its hybrid civil- ization, formed of Iranian and Greek elements, were the Yueh-chi or Indo-Skythians (cir. B.c. 126). The struggles which the Indian states carried on with them continued till the sixth century A.D.,and thus form the political background for the further develop- ment of Buddhism on Indian soil. With the fifth century begins the darkest period of Indian history, political as well as religious. When, after centuries, the veil is lifted again, and Indian sources are once more fully at our disposal, Buddha’s doctrines have largely disappeared from the continent of India. foreign influences are overcome, and, whilst a complete transformation has taken place in Brähmanism,— which organizes the national worship and moulds it into an important system, —an entirely new development of the languages is in progress. In detail, the following had probably been the course of affairs. After the death of Alexander the Great, his generals had divided his vast empire among them; his Indian possessions had fallen to Seleukos Nikator, king of Syria. But as the supremacy of Seleukos was immediately subjected to attack, and as he saw that western Asia would call for his utmost exertions —convinced of the extreme difficulty of retaining the eastern lands of his empire— he ceded the Indian provinces to Chandragupta of Magadha (cir. 305 B.C.) in return for a supply of war-elephants. A daughter of the Macedonian was married to the king of India, and a permanent ambassador, Megasthenes (whose narratives of Indian affairs, though only fragmentary, are of great value)” remained at the 1 It still retained the old name in the thirteenth century. The capital at different times was Pushkalävati, Purushapura, and Udakhanda or Waiband (Ohind). ?T’he Fragments of the Indika of Megasthenes have been collected by E. A. Schwanbeck (Bonn, 1846) and by C. Müller. They have been translated into English by J. W. McCrindle in Znd, Ant., vol. VI, 1877, and also separately (Bombay and London). BUDDHIST MISSIONS. ASOKA. 77 Indian court at Pa¢aliputra. About a century later (BC. 260-230) Asoka did his best officially to propagate Buddhism within his wide domains, and also sought to procure an entrance for it into neighbouring states. About the year B.C. 246, we learn that a Buddhist mission was sent to Kashmir and Gandhära by the great Council held under king Asoka. It was led by an elder or monk named Majjhantika (Madhyäntika) of Dahala, who found a savage Yäga king, Arava/a, ruling the country. After strong opposition, the monk is said to have converted the king and gained over the whole population. “From that period,” says the Mahdvansa, “to the present day, the people of Kashmir and Gandhära have been fervently devoted to the three branches of the faith, and [the land] has glittered with the yellow robes [of the priests].” And the testimonies of the early Chinese pilgrims, together with the numerous remains of Buddhist monasteries and stüpas still found, amply confirm the statement that such was once the case. King Asoka mentions in his inscriptions that he had carried on negotiations in reference’ to this object with the kings of the Yavanas—Antiochos of Syria, Ptolemy Philadelphos of Egypt, etc. The alliance with the Seleukidz continued, and about the year 256 B.C. Antiochus Theos concluded a treaty with Asoka. But this condition of things was soon altered. Between the two great states there arose a new power which drove the Syrian monarchy from the Indian frontier for ever. The Graco-Baktrian kingdom, which was founded at the expense of the Syrian satraps, waxed powerful, and Eukratides, king of Baktria, took up arms against India (cir. 170 B.C.).! His armies seized upon the Panjab and perhaps made their way as far as Sindh and Gujarat. The Baktrian kingdom, however, was attacked by the Yueh-chi, a Skythian tribe, who drove the Baktrians, under their king Heliokles, over the Hindu Kush (B.C. 125).2 Somewhat later his successor, Menandros, whose dominions could no longer have included Baktria, had his capital at Säkala (Sangala or Särkala) in the Panjab, somewhere near the Hydraötes or Ravi river, and made considerable conquests in north India? A generation after Menandros, the Yonakas or so-called Greeks were again sub- jected to the onslaughts of Yueh-chi tribes, and Hermaios, about B.C. 25, seems to have shared his kingdom with Kadphises, the Yueh-chi chief of the Kishan tribe. Among the kings of the Baktrian dynasty—whose contemporaries in India were the Sunga and Kanva dynasties—M enandros is 1 Justin, Hist. lib. xli, 6; Strabo, lib. xv., 1,3; xi,9,2,and 11, 2; Wilson, Ariana Antiqua, pp. 234ff. ? Ptolemy, Geog. vii, 1,46; Wilson, Ariana Ant. pp. 280ff; Duff, Chronology of India, p. 16. . 3 Sylvain Levi, Quid de Grecis vet. Indorum monum. trad. p.17; Beal’s Si-yu-ki, vol. I, p. 166, note 5; and Ind. Ant. vol. XV, p. 246; Specht in Jour. Asiat., 8me Ser. t. II (1883), p. 348; Sylvain Levi, bid. t. XV (1890), pp. 237-9; McCrindle, Invas. Ind. pp. 347-8, 411; Sac. Bks. of the East, vol. XXXV, p. 23.—J.B. 78 MENANDROS. INTERCHANGES BETWEEN EAST AND WEST. by far the most important. He is doubtless identical with the Mi/inda of the Buddhists; and seems, according to Plutarch, to have gone over entirely to Buddhism.! A Pali work, 7he Questions of King Milinda—Milindafanha® (first rendered accessible to English readers through the Singhalese version, Milindaprasnayä), which belongs perhaps to the first century after Christ, repre- sents the king in conversation with a Buddhist monk who expounds to him Buddha’s philosophy in a style almost Platonic; whereupon the king is converted. In any case, this work is an important Indian testimony to the interest of the Greeks in Indian philosophy, on which subject Greek authors are so well informed. Hermaios, the last of the Yonaka or Greeco-Baktrian dynasty, was dispossessed of part of his power by the Yueh-chi about 25 B.c. Other tribes—Ye-tha or Sakas—had also pressed into the same region; Maues had previously established himself there and was succeeded by Azes, Azilises, &c., who were perhaps Skythic or Sakas; and a little later we have names that seem to be Parthian, such as Gondopharas or Gudapharas, Abdagases,? Orthagnes, &c. Gudapharas must have ruled about A.D. 25-50, and is the king mentioned in Christian tradition as having received the Apostle Thomas. A little later Kanishka the Küshan became supreme from Kabul to the Ganges. In those days a vast interchange of ideas was carried on between the east and the Hellenic and Roman worlds by means of the newly opened highways. It is, of course, impossible within the limits of this work more fully to describe this period, so highly important for the east as well as for the west; but a few cardinal points in connexion with the artistic efforts of the Indian world may be mentioned. The Greeks sought and found in India traces of their own gods; the tendency of the Hellenes, noticed as early as Herodotos, to identify the gods of barbarian races with their own, led to the recognition of the ancient conquests of Dionysos in India.* Just as Alexander the Great, impelled by the exigencies of Oriental court etiquette, assumed the title of a god; so, to reverse the process, the gods who, according to the legends, had performed such miraculous feats in India, were soon represented as deified conquerors. The sages of Egypt and India had to furnish pre- tended proofs that the personages of their national mythology were only deified heroes. The Indian doctrine of the transmigration of souls was adopted, and in the Occident was utilized in a Puritanic 1 Strabo, Geog. xi, 11, 2; Plutarch, De Rep. Ger. p. 821; Lassen, Ind, Alt. Bd. II, Ss. 313f., 340f.; Hist. Baktr. Kings, 150-158; Sac. Bks. of the East, vol. XXXV, }) Saxo 2 Translated by Rhys Davids, Sac. Bhs. of the East, vols. XXXV, XXXVI._ 3 There is no ground whatever for Cunningham’s hypothesis (Jour, ds. S, Beng. vol, XXIII, pp. 711-12) that Abdagases is the Parthian who led the revolt against Artabanus IIL.—J.B. 4 Herodotos, ii, 50, &e.; Diodoros, iii, 63; Strabo, xv, 1,58; Polsen, Strateg., i, 1, 1-3; Arrian, Ind., cc, 5-7. BUDDHIST MISSIONS: ‘THE, YUEH-CHE SCHOOLS. yo. direction in order to sift the fast increasing crowds of gods and forms of worship which had been the result of the confusion of ideas, or to prove directly the incorrectness of the ancient legends, —the so-called Euhemerism. The story of the campaigns in these tropical lands created an interest in adventure and travel, and gave birth to tales of adven- ture, which, by means of foreign names, romantic descriptions and strange themes, ventured to surpass reality. Greek ideas and narratives find their way into the Buddhist texts; and Indian similes, fables and legends appear in the literature of the West. Whether Greek dramatic art merely influenced the Indian, or founded it, may be left an open question. These attempts continued until the time of the later Roman emperors—about the fifth century.! With regard to India and the influence of Buddhism at this period, stress should be laid on the fact that an exactly analogous flood of Indian ideas, which had a much more powerful effect than in the case of the Greco-Roman civilized world, set in at the same time. towards. the East and especially towards China and the lands east of India, and that this went on for centuries. About 65 A.D. the Han Emperor Ming-ti had Buddhist books brought from India; in the succeeding cen- turies Buddha’s religion made gigantic strides in East and Central Asia. Fah-hian, who visited India about A.D. 400, was acquainted with a set form of prayer to the Bodhisattva Maitréya: the Buddhists outside India were thus, throughout this whole period, constantly in touch with the development of the doctrines in the mother-country. But the same Chinese pilgrim saw on Indian soil representations of the founder of the new religion for which Western art had afforded an ideal type. Under the heirs of the Greek power in India, the Yueh-chis, Turushkas, or Indo-Skythians, Greek or Western civilization still prevailed; but coupled with the interest of the ruling houses in Buddha’s doctrines, the Indo-Skythians may perhaps have become disciples of Buddha in their own country. The most potent of these kings was Kanishka,? the Küshana. He ruled over a powerful kingdom including Käbül, Gandhara, Kashmir, the Panjab, parts of Rajasthan, and the present N.W. Provinces. About the year 100 A.D., at his instigation, there met, at Jälandhara in the Panjab, a council of Buddhist teachers, which set itself the task of collecting and arranging the sacred writings and bringing about an agreement and a reconciliation between the different sects. At this council the sacred texts were no longer written in the ancient Pali or 1 On this see Reinaud, Relations politiques et commer, de U Empire roman avec U’ Asie orientale (Paris, 1863); and Priaulx, Indian travels of Apollonius of Tyana, and the Indian embassies to Rome (Lond. 1873).—J.B. 2 The Greek form of the name was formerly read Kavepxns, but see Burgess, Ind. Ant. vol. XIII, p. 58, and M. A. Stein, ibid. vol. XVII, pp. 94f. Senart considers the form Kaneshka as the correct une; Jour. As. 9me Ser., tom. VII (1896), p. 11. Hiuen Thsang calls him Kanishka Räja of Gandhära; Beal, Si-yu-ki, vol. I, p. 56, 80 DECLINE *OF BUDDHISM. Magadhi tongue, probably spoken by Buddha himself, but in Sanskrit. By this means the split between the now separating northern and southern schools became decided and lasting. The southern school does not recognise the council of Jälandhara in its traditions ; its own canons are in the Pali language ; the numerous heterodox works emanating from the sects that had been more or less influenced by Brähmanism, and which the northern school received for conciliatory reasons, are also unknown to the southern church, which now went its own way, and was in consequence removed from Hindu influences. This southern church thus represents in her sacred canons the older and purer exposition of Buddha’s doctrines. Now-a-days, since the extinction of Buddhism on Indian soil, besides the countries of Farther India—Burma Siam, and Kamboja, only Ceylon is still Buddhist, and it is regarded as the seat of the southern church. The northern school has gained Tibet, Nepal and China, with the neighbouring countries, but it has also made some way in Farther India, and in Java it has got a footing side by side with Brähmanism. In Northern India, between the sixth and seventh centuries, Buddhism declined rapidly; in Kashmir it held out longest. What it lost in the land of its birth it gained in Central Asia; twice it penetrated into Tibet, and there it not only brought all religious life into subjection, but contrived by means of its powerful hierarchy- to gain also the political supremacy. In China, Buddhism is found in two sects—-Foism, which was intro- duced from India, and Lamaism, which came from Tibet—side by side with other forms of religion; but it has lost much of its prestige. Japan received the Bauddha religion from Korea. In the Indian Archipelago Buddhism is almost extinct. Buddhism of the Mahäyäna school continued to flourish in Gandhära including Udyäna, down to the close of the fifth century. When Fah-hian visited the country about A.D. 404, he found 500 monasteries and the people devoted to the Bauddha Path; but about 515 A.D. Mihirakula, a Hüra, overran Udyäna and Kashmir, killed Simha the Buddhist patriarch, and massacred the Buddhists. _In the seventh century Hiuen Thsang, passing through the country, found the religion decadent ; but fully a century later (A.D. 757-764) U-K’ong, who resided for some years in Udyäna, speaks of over 300 monasteries of the Sarvästivädin or Vaibhäshika school of Mahäyänists in this district, and the then ruling princes zealously patronised the monks. When, after long struggles, the Yueh-chis had been driven out of India proper, the dynasty of the Gupta emperors became the dominant one. Under their rule (A.D. 319-530) Buddhism began to fall decidedly into decay. It had at an early date become divided into numerous sects or schools, which decidedly contributed to its loss of power; and the mass of the people, who could not follow the hair-splitting dialectics of these various schools, —who DECLINE OF BUDDHISM : MANICHAISM : IRANIAN ART. 81 had regular argumentative combats among themselves,1— fell back into the older and more eclectic cult of Brähmanism, which they had never altogether forgotten. The strong and continually in- creasing intrusion of Brähmaza elements into philosophical state- ment and into ritual gradually but completely transformed the old doctrines of Buddha. Unfortunately, with the fifth century the darkest period of Indian history begins; native sources of inform- ation cease almost entirely. What we do know we owe to foreign writers: the Chinese pilgrims already mentioned—Fah-hian (cir. 400 A.D.), Sung-yun (cir. 518 A.D.), and Hiuen Thsang (629-648 A.D.). While the first of these found the Bauddha religion still pretty generally observed in India, Hiuen Thsang laments its decline. We have ‘still to note the changes effected about the third century by the Christian religion, which, from western Asia, was spreading in all directions. Through Syrian sources, Christendom had become almost the immediate neighbour of Buddhism.” Alongside of the Christian religion stood the theories of the Zoroastrians; and from these two Manichezism had been evolved, which had already adopted certain Buddhist ideas also: everywhere a lively reaction of the old religious forms had set. in against the new doctrines. For our purposes it is specially noteworthy that the Paraclete plays a prominent part in Manı’s doctrine, for, as we shall see, in the Gändhära sculptures of the Peshawar district, the Buddhist Messiah, Maitreya, seems to be reverenced almost more than the founder himself. Returning to Buddhist art, we find traces of Greek influence in Asoka’s buildings, in particular elements which neither the richness of form of the so-called Orientalising tendency, nor Persian influ- ences, suffice to explain. (Conf. above p.57). The elements in question are essentially decorative, and quite in the Persian style ; they consist of particular forms of creatures with fishes’ tails (Mat- syanäris), hippocampi, makaras, centaurs, river-gods with human faces and the bodies of oxen, the thunderbolt, etc. Unfortunately, the miserable ruins of ancient Iranian art are altogether in- sufficient to represent the whole range of the influence which ancient Iran must have exercised in India. It is particularly regrettable that there is no answer to the question to what extent Greek hands may have been employed in the buildings of the Achemenides. That Persian ideas were at work for a much longer time in India, and that they had a special influence on the ! Notices of such competitions, almost in the monastic style of medisval times, occur in plenty in Täranätha (Schiefner’s transl.). Even still, the Lama religion prescribes similar competitions as school exercises. Conf. Huc et Gabet, Souvenir d’un voyage dans la Tartarie, etc. (Paris, 1850), tom. II, pp. 117-8. 2 How influential the Christian communities were is evidenced by the fact that the Christians (651 A.D.) buried with great ceremony the shamefully murdered Persian king Yazdigard.—Ibn Athir, iii, 96, quoted by E. Kuhn, ‘ Barlaam und Joasaph,’ Abhand. K. B. Acad. Wiss. (1893) 1 Cl. Bd. XX, i, 8.37; also Nöldeke in Zeitsch.d. D.M. Gesch., Bd. XLIV, S. 521. G 82 THE NAME GANDHÄRA. INDO-HELLENIC SCHOOL. later Buddhism of the north, is shown by what follows. The cunei- form inscriptions of the time of the Achzmenides refer to the Indian peoples under two names, adopted by Herodotos also, as Hindu (Indoi) and Gandärä (Gandarioi)." These designations are peculiarly suitable for the two periods of Buddhist art; if the style of Asoka and the Indian style that sprang from it are com- prised under the name Indian (Indo-Persian), the name Gandara (Skt. Gandhära and Gändhära) remains to designate the style adopted in the kingdom of that name, whose geographical position we have defined above. The designations Graeco-Buddhist, Indo- Baktrian, &e., which have been applied to them, are all, for various reasons, incorrect and misleading. Yet, of course, there is no lack of transitions and opposing tendencies. Thus, in India proper (at Mathura) are to be found traces of what Mr. Vincent Smith styles an Indo-Hellenic school, which represents subjects purely Greek. The best known _relief, which belongs to this group, is the so-called Silenus, now in the Calcutta Museum; a second represents Hercules with the Nemzan lion.” To this little known school, which ought possibly to be somehow connected with the stay of Megasthenes at Patna, belongs the representation of Mara with bow and arrow, and also some similar older Greek elements which differ entirely from the Gändhära sculptures, and are still to be found even in Brähmanical art. Both the sculptures mentioned above are Greek in form, but the figure of the woman in Grecian dress, represented on the Silenus relief, shows Indian influence in its exaggerated outlines. To this group also belongs an Athene found in the Gandhara terri- tory,’ and described by Vincent Smith. It is now in the museum at Lahor. The rich antiquarian remains of the Käbül valley and Indian frontier were brought to notice between 60 and 70 years ago by Mr. C. Masson, Dr. Hénigberger, General Ventura, and Captains Court and P. T. Cautley. The Manikyäla and other stüpas were opened and large numbers of Gr&co-Baktrian and Saka coins were collected, together with some sculptures. These excited much interest among scholars at the time; and after the Panjab came under British rule in 1849 wider scope was afforded to investigators ; the ancient sites, particularly in Yüsufzai, became accessible, and soon yielded numerous sculptures which have, in various ways, reached our Museums. The late Sir E. Clive Bayley obtained the first collection made at Jamälgarhi, but,—placing these valuable 1 Inscriptions of Persepolis and of Nakhsh-i-Rustam, in Jour, R. As. Soc., vol. X (1847), pp. 280 and 294. 2 Silenus, Anderson’s Archeol. Cat., pt. I, pp. 169-176f. _Nemean lion, ibid, pp. 190-1; Ar. Sur. Ind., vol. XVII, p. 109. Another Silenus was found by Mr. Growse at Mathurä; J. A. S. Beng., vol. XLIV (1875), pt. i, pp. 212-15; and references above on p. 34, note 2. 3 Ind. Monuments, pt. I, pl. 91, 1; conf. also the pedestal in Lahor Museum, repre- sented in Jour. Ind. Art, &e,, vol. VILI, pl. 20, 7,and Jour. R, I, Br, Arch. (1894), p- 138.—J.B. THE SCULPTURES. THEIR DISCUSSION, 83 sculptures in the Crystal Palace for exhibition, —they were destroyed by the fire in November 1866, and this before they had even been photographed.! In November, 1885, General Cunningham shipped a large and important collection to England, which was lost in the steamer “Indus” off Ceylon. A very large number were excavated for the Government of India in the Yüsufzai district, and were distributed among the various Museums in India, much to the detriment of their proper study. The largest collections are in the Museums of Lahor and Calcutta.?, Numbers have from time to time been acquired by private individuals, and some have found their way to the British Museum, the Berlin Ethnographical Museum, the Louvre, Vienna, the Edinburgh University,? &c., &c. In the numerous reliefs thus found, a quite new and very remark- able development is presented. The ruins are found in the neighbourhood of Peshawar, the ancient Purushapura, at one time the capital of the Gandhära kingdom, at Jamälgarhi, Takht-i- Baht, Shahr-i-Bahlol, and places in the Swat (Suvästu, Gr. Soastos) district. Monuments of a similar style are found farther to the west, such as the colossi of Bämiyän and so on, and also farther to the east. It is to the late Mr. Jas. Fergusson (1808-1886) that we owe the first scientific discussion of these monuments and of the Indian art represented by them; and whatever advances we have made since, have been largely due to his work as a remarkably skilful and wise pioneer, abreast of the knowledge of his time. Serious attention was first drawn to the subject by his writings, and the materials have since been largely increased. We are thus in a position now to attempt to advance a step and to arrange the results attained and apply them to the further interpretation of our materials. The antiquities discussed by Fergusson, Cunningham, Bailey, and others, and made known to the public in part by Cole,’ have since been treated more in detail in the excellent paper of Vincent Smith ! All the record we have of them is a short descriptive note by Sir E. C. Bayley, with eleven rough lithographed sketches in Jour, As. Soc. Beng., vol. XXI (1852), pp. 606-621.—J.B. ? Besides those sent to Lahor and Calcutta Museums, smaller collections were sent to the Victoria and Albert Museum at: Bombay, to Madras, and even to Rangoon.—J.B. * Sixty-three pieces, largely from Swat, are in the Berlin Ethnographical Museum, and it was chiefly to explain and illustrate them that the following portion of the Handbuch was written. The late Dr. Leitner, while at Lahor, formed a splendid collection, which he brought to Woking. In other private hands there are numbers, which, unfortunately, are generally unknown and practically inaccessible to students while unpublished.—J.B. * Hist, Ind. and East. Archit., pp. 72-83, 169-184. : ° Major H. H. Cole published thirty plates of @reco-Buddhist Sculptures from Yüsufzai, as a fasciculus of the work on ‘Preservation of National Monuments’ (1885). This work is out of print; but twelve of the plates were reproduced in the reprint of Preservation of National Monuments in India (London, 1896), and other seventeen, (with sixty-four additional) in the Ancient Monuments, &c., of India, Part I (London, 1897). In the Journal of Indian Art and Industry, vol. VIII, a further series of twenty-five plates and thirty-eight cuts have been published.—J.B. 84 DATE AND ORIGIN. INSCRIPTIONS. | and in an important article by M. Senart.! Both discuss, from different points of view, the period to which the sculptures belong ; the former would extend them over the first five centuries of our era, placing the most flourishing period in the third and first half of the fourth century; the latter does not incline to extend the period to so late a date, and regards the second century and earlier half of the third as its principal period. Mr. V. Smith lays stress on certain features of the art as being Roman rather than Greek. This distinction, however, must not be carried too far: it is one of age rather than of origin. Roman art had always been in- fluenced by Greek taste and models, through the races of Greek descent in Southern Italy ; and finally— Grecia capta ferum victorem cepit, et artes Intulit agresti Latio. Roman art in sculpture and decorative invention was primarily Hellenic ; the Greeks developed Roman architecture in their own facile creative way, ever inventing new forms of ornament and lavish- ing upon it their wealth of decorative taste. We may call the art of the early Christian centuries Roman, as being produced under Roman rule, but it was Greek minds that inspired and Greek hands that executed it. Greek artists, in their wanderings, carried with them the types and style of the age to which they belonged. And during the first three centuries of our era, Greek art was an article of exportation, and artists—art practitioners—also seem to have travelled everywhere in search of employment. Naturally, they would copy or adapt the models of their native art to meet the demands of their foreign clients of whatever religion.’ The few inscriptions found in connexion with the Gandhara sculptures or on the same sites are dated from 103 to 384 of an undetermined era. The first, that of Gondophares, is in his 26th year, and he is otherwise placed in the first century A.D. This would refer the epoch to about the middle of the previous century, and the ‘Sam- vat’ era dates from 57 B.c. If, then, we adopt this for all the dates, —and there is no reason for supposing the use of more eras than one among these inscriptions, unless indicated, nor for supposing another era than the Samvat one beginning in the same century, —we may thus place the accession of .Gondophares in A.D. 21-22, and his 26th year in A.D. 47; the Theodorus inscription would fall in A.D. 57; the Pafjtar inscription in 65 ; that of Loriyan Tangai in 262; and that of Hashtnagar in A.D. 328.2 All these dates are within the limits otherwise indicated for the age of the sculptures. 1 Smith in Jour. A. S. Beng., vol. LVIIL (1889), pt. i, pp. 107ff; Senart in Jour. 4s., 8me Ser., tom. XV, pp. 139-163. An outline of M. Senart’s argument was repro- duced in Jour. Ind. Art and Ind., vol. VIII, pp. 25-29. Conf. also Bühler, Anz. d. K. K, Acad. Wiss. zu Wien (1896), Ss. 444f.—J.B. 2 Conf. Foucher in Rev. de l’ Histoire des Relig. tom. XXX (1894), pp. 365-68. 3 See Senart, in Jour. As., 9me Ser. tom. XIII (1899), pp. 526-537, 555. It may be remarked here that if we assign the inscription of Mogas of 78, to this era, it falls just at the accession of Gondophares ; but see Jour, Asiat, 8me Sér. t. XV, p.128.—J.B. PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT : ANALOGIES. 85 The period of development is limited then between the birth of Christ and the fifth century A.D. In the seventh century, as stated above, the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Thsang found the build- ings in ruins, with clear traces of long decay. The most ancient of all the sculptures are, of course, those which represent purely Greek subjects, such as the Athene mentioned above. A further development revealing an idealistic and a realistic tendency, but at the same time a series that is more Hellenic and one more Indian, is very noticeable in different pieces of sculpture which, unfortunately, cannot possibly be examined in Europe. One seems to recognise a great many of the borrowings made: Greek elements, Roman, and even Christian. The Gändhära school has consequently a certain analogy with the old Etruscan. Even here an indigenous naturalism is found side by side with the influence of the archi- tectural styles of west Asia—the Etruscan intermixed with the Greek. But as Italian art gradually passes into Christian, and endeavours to derive from the old types models for the saints of the new religion which has overthrown heathenism ; so, in the Gandhara school, extraordinarily similar types are developed for the Buddhist saints. A wide range of homogeneous resemblances is apparent here: both religions, Christian and Buddhist, have in their ethical doctrines much that is related; the same external means, outrunners of ancient art, contribute to the development of the types, and, in addition, direct borrowing is evident. By its repre- sentation of forms, the school of the Gändhära monasteries is only a daughter of ancient art; but, as it represents none but Indian subjects — the saints and legends of a purely Indian religion, —it belongs entirely to Indian life: and this so much the more that it forms the groundwork for the canonical representation of the founder of the religion and several other personages, especially of the northern school ; so also the Greek art of composition, as will be shown more in detail below, from this time onward, is apparent in Buddhist art in all lands. In what follows we shall try to 41. RELIEF WITH SCENES FROM indicate the types occurring in the THE LIFE or GAUTAMA BUDDHA Greek sculptures, to fix their names (Takht-t-Baht). Ge wineries “14. Museum, 20 inches high, as far as possible, and generally to f sketch their genesis and further development. As the central figure of most of these compositions (though also N nn 86 BUDDHA-TYPE : THE NIMBUS. occurring frequently by itself), the representation of the founder of the Buddhist religion appears as a finished type (fig. 41). He is given again in the form of a young man, in a long robe which covers both shoulders. The face, in the older and more ideal con- ceptions, shows features resembling those of Apollo, while on the more modern and more stereotyped pieces the features are distinctly Hindu. The representations in Chapter IV. show the extremes fairly well. The hair is arranged in a krobylos: sometimes the figure is represented sitting, Indian fashion, with legs drawn up; at others standing with the right hand uplifted, or striding towards the right, and soon. The draping and treatment of the garments is thoroughly Hellenic; on the more ancient slabs it is often very delicate, and here and there it has quite a distinctive character ; but on the later representations the different garments, which have become conventional and stereotyped, are arranged in a fashion that is decidedly not Indian. ‘The position of the hand, and the arrangement of the garments, bear a certain relation to the treat- ment represented, and become typical in their portrayal of particular crises in Buddha’s life. As the symbol of his claim to adoration, there appears a large nimbus surrounding the head (Sans. bhämandala, prabhämandala). On the reliefs of the Asoka period, and the sculptures on the gates of Sänchi, which are related, the nimbus, as a symbol of the gods, is not quite unknown (Buddha does not appear in them at all); on the other hand it appears at Amaravati, and, with some other elements, belongs to the interest- ing evidences which point to contact between these sculptures and those of the Gändhära school (see ill. from Amarävati in ch. iv). The nimbus is borrowed from the Greek school, yet it appeared very late in Greek art—in the time of Alexander.! Together with the kindred halo, it belongs originally to the celestial deities; it is interesting to note that, in this sense, it is not wanting in the Gän- dhara sculptures. On the relief from Jamälgarhi the deities of the sun and moon are represented with the nimbus. But that Gautama, not merely as Buddha, but also as a prince, receives the nimbus, provesthat at that time his deification was already generally accepted. For such an attribute—which can properly be given only to a god of light,—must necessarily have separated him from the other figures, and put him on an equal footing with the deities there represented with the nimbus.. That the Persian fire-worship facilitated the transference of the attribute is an important point, to which we must call attention, as, at a later date, Persian influ- ences show themselves still more strongly. The nimbus is a purely artistic element which, executed in stone, presents a strange appearance, and points in the clearest way to an old school of art. In connection with this, the fact is to be noted that in reliefs 1See Stephani, Nimbus und Strahlenkranz, in Mém. de "Acad. St. Petersbourg, 6me Ser.t. IX; and conf. Gardner, Coins of Greek and Scythian Kings, pll. xiii, 9; XVi, 4; xxvii, 7; xxvVili, 22, 23; xxvi, 8, and xxxii, 14; Senart, Jour. As. 8me Ser. t. XV, p. 146. REPRESENTATION OF THE GODS: BRAHMA, SAKKA. 87 which go back to the ancient types of plastic composition (e.g. ill. 41, 57, 70) the nimbus is not found, while in artistically executed representations it exists (conf. ill. 50, &c.). But for the solution of this difficulty more data are necessary. In reliefs which represent scenes from the life of Gautama before he had left his home and obtained enlightenment, he is represented in royal garb, in the same manner as gods and kings are represented on the Safichf sculptures. It is true that there the figures are Greek also, and the nimbus makes him clearly conspicuous in the later works of art. In the fourth chapter the Buddha-type will be treated in detail. As concerns the gods,—as was indicated above (p. 38), they retain the regal type, though sometimes with the addition of a nimbus (conf. ill. 50) ; and if, in the sculptures of the Asoka period, a characterization of the individual divine figure does not exist, expressing the röle of a deity by his bodily presence, on the other hand we may observe that the Gändhära sculptures exhibit, in this respect, a rich individualization. Let us remember, first, then, that in the former, only attributes—the thunderbolt, lotus, and flowers —and in pillar figures the vähanas of the gods are determinative ; and now let us look somewhat more closely at the individual types of divinities. Brahma (or the Brahma gods as a class), who, from the de- scription given in the Avidürenidäna, cannot be mistaken on the relief above-mentioned, has a kind of krobylos—a jata—on his head, and, so far as can be seen from the somewhat damaged relief, is bearded. He is also represented as a Brahmaza. The figure of Brahma on this relief, which is probably of later date, ‘reminds one thereby in a remarkable way of Peter. The gar- ments are quite Grecian. The divine attributes, mentioned above —thunderbolt, flowers, &c.—are wanting to him (see also fig. 40). The most important personality of the older Bauddha Pantheon —Sakka (S. Sakra)—should, however, be expected to bear his attribute of the thunderbolt (conf. fig. 40). In fact, many thunder- bolt bearers appear, but varied to a remarkable extent. On the reliefs, which represent scenes from the life of the great Teacher as he moves about among his fellow-men—teaching, reconciling, healing, and working wonders—the Gandhara sculp- tures almost invariably show, close to Buddha himself, a strange figure, the explanation of which has occasioned much discussion. In more highly decorative compositions this figure appears also, but in a corner of the whole, and not directly beside Buddha. The sketches in ill. 42 show some of the numerous variations in the representation of this being on earlier and later reliefs. One attribute, however, is common to all—a peculiar club-like object which the figure sometimes grasps by the middle with his right hand, and sometimes holds upright on his palm. In the case of the more modern reliefs (e.g. Nos. 2 and 5), one gets the impression 88 DEVADATTA, MARA, OR VAJRAPANI. that the sculptor has not known exactly what the object was intended to represent. On the earlier and better composed reliefs, like the one from which No. I is copied, this object is more distinct, and it ~ is always grasped by the middle (as in ill. 40). This figure General Cunningham regarded as Devadatta, and others have agreed with this identification, According to the 42. VARIOUS FORMS OF THE X 1 Silenus; 2, 5, Satyr-type; VAJRA-BEARER. 4 Eros-type. x5 legends, Devadatta was a cousin but an adversary of Buddha, and repeatedly \ plotted against his life. The conjecture has been sup- posed to derive support from the fact that on a Ö sculpturein Lahor Museum! this supposed Devadatta is girt with a sword (No. 5). But it is to be noted that the figure appears in the repre- sentation of scenes from Buddha’s life, where Devadatta, according to the legends, could not have been present ; as at the discourse at Banaras in the Deer Park, and at the Nirvära scene,— where the Vajra-bearer invariably appears. And, further, it is a feature common to nearly all the examples that the upper part of the body is depicted naked (sometimes to the middle of the thigh). Even if we must always take Greek forms into account, it 1s ın- dubitable that, on the basis of a religion which regarded the nude quite as unfavourably as did the Christian religion, this almost 1 Indian Monts. pl. 132. A scene in the Käsyapa legend. VARIOUS FORMS OF THE VAJRA-BEARER. 89 invariable nudity must have a meaning. Even if Devadatta was really the Gurw of a sect of naked monks, the partial covering is unintelligible.! Next it has been argued that Mara, the evil one, is represented by this figure; and for this view the argument stands thus :— The head of the figure, where preserved, differs widely in character. On the old and beautifully composed relief from which No. ı is taken, the head is like that of Silenus, with tonsure, sensual face, and thin, streaky beard. On another (No. 6) he has bristling hair and a fuil beard, and is somewhat wild and demoniacal in look and bearing. In representation No. 4, which is taken from a relief representing the one given in fig. 57, the club-bearer is represented with a youthful appearance and with a wreath upon his hair. No. 5 is taken from a rougher replica of the same composition. The features of the head shown in No. 3, from a representation of the discourse at Banaras, which forms part of a pointed arch,express malicious joy. The club-bearer, it is inferred, therefore, is a being who looks with an unfriendly eye upon all Buddha’s miracles and upon every practical proof of his ministry, who lies in wait con- tinually, but is careful not to enter into direct opposition to him. In one instance this figure is represented (ill. 57) with a fan (Hind. chaur?’), with which he fans the great Teacher. The lying in wait and the mockery seem expressed on the relief repre- sented in ill. 70(from Natthu,near Sanghäo), which depicts Gautama Buddha’s death. In the centre of the composition, behind the couch of the dying, is seen a bearded figure which raises high his left hand with the club- like attribute. On a rough replica of the same representation (ill. 74) this divinity stands at the head of the Buddha entering an . R 2 . dj 1. HUNDERBOLT- Nirvana. "On tis-reliei thesis naked-but= “Seale ran Natiku for a short loin-cloth, and unbearded ; in near Sanghao.2 his left hand he holds his club-like attri- bute, and with the right he points to Buddha’s head. ‘The relative size of the figure varies in different sculptures; while on some it is of the same size as the other figures, there are instances where it is of dwarf-like diminutiveness. It, however, is admitted that on some reliefs at least (ill. 44, &c.), he manifestly stands in a position as if a protecting guardian.® 1 Monier Williams, Buddhism, pp. 52, 474. 2 Cole, Pres. Nat. Mon., Gr.-Bud. Se. pl. 17; Burgess, Monts. Ind. pl. 115, 7. * That the sıme figure may appear on a combined slab in two different forms within the different relief areas—here bearded and again unbearded—need not surprise us in the case of the Gändhära school which, exercising its art mechanically, always repeats certain compositions. 90 SAKKA: VAJRAPÄNI. Now the figure may represent the old thunder-god Sakka, and, indeed, ought to represent him in all the instances where he appears in a protective and sympathetic way. For Sakka is the Deus ex machina of the Bauddha legends ; when anything im- portant is about to happen on earth, his throne in heaven grows warm, and he hastens down to interfere in the interests of right and truth.! But, further, apart from the features as they now exist in these sculptures, the appearance of the figure is nowhere represented as distinctly inimical ; and we may pause before regarding it as in any case representing Mära—the implacable enemy of the Buddha ; —in fact, it would be entirely against all Buddhist ideas that he should ever appear among the followers of the Vanquisher.? In the different representations of the Nirvaza scene, too, the personage in question appears to be clearly identified by the legends as Sakka, Satamanya, or Vajrapäzi—the bearer of the thunderbolt. Ina former birth, they relate, he had been the son of a Chakravartti, or universal ruler,and had taken a vow to defend Buddhism ; he was then born king of the Devas of the Traya- strimsat heavens, and as such is the representative of the secular power and protector of the Samgha or church. Hence he came to be represented as the constant attendant of Buddha and ever at his call, holding the vajra as ready to crush every enemy. He attended at Gautama’s birth, and at his flight from home; he assisted Sujata to prepare his meal on the attainment of Buddha- hood; with other Devas he congratulated Buddha on his victory over Mara; at the Muchalinda tree he brought Buddha fruit, a tooth-cleanser, and water to bathe his face; on the conversion of Bimbisära, in the form of a young Brahmamza, he advanced through the crowd before Buddha, singing his praise. In the Amdéattha Sutta we read that, when Gautama was forcing Ambaf/ha to a confession, ‘the spirit who bears the vajra® stood over above Am- ba¢tha in the sky with a mighty mass of iron, all fiery, dazzling and aglow, with the intention, if he did not answer, there and then to split his head in pieces. And the Blessed one perceived the spirit bearing the thunderbolt,and so did Amba¢¢ha the Brahmaza.’ Lastly, when he saw Buddha was about to depart, Sakka exclaimed in grief, ! T reluctantly differ from Professor Grünwedel as to the weight of his argument outlined above. We must bear in mind that this figure in all these sculptures is carved in most refractory material, on a very small scale, has been weathered by more than a millenium, and was, almost certainly, originally covered by a thin coating of plaster and painted. Such considerations should make us chary of laying too much stress on the features left on these small figures. Then the theory that the thunder- bolt is an attribute of Mara and of the Devas generally is one for which I know of no sufficient evidence.—J.B. 2 In this and the following paragraphs, I state the view which to me seems most con- sistent with the legends and the reliefs.—-J. B. 3 Buddhaghosa identifies the Vajrapäni here with Indra. Conf. Sac. Bks. of the Buddhists, vol, Pip: Ih, SAKKA IN THE NIRVANA SCENES. 91 ‘The Tathägata is about to leave us to enter the great Nirväna ; he will no longer teach us, he will no longer protect us. The poisoned shaft hath entered deep, the flame of sorrow riseth up.’ Then letting fall the diamond sceptre, in despair he rolled himself in the dust, and rising again full of grief and compassion he ex- claimed, ‘In the vast ocean of birth and of death who shall be our boat and our oar? In the darkness of a long night, who shall be our lamp and our watch?’ Both Fah-hian and Hiuen Thsang refer to this and to the stüpa raised on the spot.! Now this Nirvaza scene is one of the most frequently represented, and in most, if not all, the reliefs Sakka appears there—often as a burly, bearded man, naked to the waist—either fallen to the ground, or standing by the dying teacher in an attitude of grief. The hand upon the head, or raised in the air, or pointing to the dying, are attributes expressive of grief or dismay. The Nirvaza subjects thus explained lead us to conclude that in the others —whether he appeared as a comely young Brahmaza (fig. 40) or in the burly form reminding us of a copy of a Zeus,—we have the same Sakra in all, distinguished as the thunderbolt-bearer or Vajrapä»i; and as Strabo and his authorities regarded Indra as identical with the Jupiter Pluvius? of the Greeks, we can readily imagine how an artist at all familiar with the classical forms, on being called upon to represent the Indian ruler of the atmosphere, would naturally take some well-known type of Zeus as his model, and with the bushy locks he would copy also the nude trunk and even the beard of his originals. When a form was demanded representing the Deva ‘as a young Brahmawza,’ more or less modifi- cation and adaptation would be introduced; but the refractory character of the material would interfere with the nicer details of feature and the like. Whether the appearance in the earlier Gandhara sculptures of a god bearing a thunderbolt always seen near the person of Buddha may, at a later date, have originated the Bodhisattva Vajrapdazi of the northern school,* must remain a probable conjecture. 1Sp. Hardy, Man. of Bud.198, 298f., 355f.; Beal, Si-yu-ki, vol. II, p.36; Remusat and Klaproth, Foe-koue-ki, p. 239; conf. Bigandet, Legend of Gaudama, vol. I, pp. 141-2, 154-5, II, p. 75; Rhys Davids, Bud. Birth Stories, pp. 67, 86,109, 116-17. In Legge’s translation of Fah-hian the illustration (No. 8) of the Nirvä»a scene, from a Chinese work, shows Sakra fallen to the ground beside his sceptre.—J.B. Strabo, lib. xv, c. 1, § 69; conf. Lassen, Ind. Alter. Bd. II, S. 702-3, Muir, Or, Sansk. Texts, vol. V, p. 77. 3 Conf. Globus (1899), vol. LXXIII, No. 2, p. 170, fig. 2. There is another replica of No. 44, on which the bearded figure holds the thunderbolt—which is wanting here. Conf. Jour. Ind, Art, vol. VIII, pp. 78 and 35, pl. 10, fig. 4. 4 Further, as Vajrapani swears to Buddha’s doctrine, so Buddha—his master and defender—must have at his disposal Vajrapäni’s weapon, the thunderbolt. Thus the legend of Buddha’s thunderbolt arises, and also the use of the small brass vajras (rDo-rje, Mongol: Ojir) which to this day are among the most indispensable attributes ofa Lama. But that pictorial representations have exercised a very important influ- ence on the creation of Bauddha legends has been mentioned when speaking of the 92 MARA PAPIYAN, Mara Päpiyän, or Vasavarti (p. 39), rarely, if ever, appears in Bauddha sculptures, except in the representations of the temptation scene. There, among the weapons that he and his host threaten to hurl at Säkyamuni, his sceptre javelin or vajra may appear, but not specially as an attribute, for the bow and arrows are rather his distinctive symbol. it { er u 44. GANDHARA RELIEF. From a photograph. On the relief (ill. 44)? Buddha is represented with the wheel symbol, supported on the Zrisula, therefore preaching and sur- rounded by disciples. He sits under the Bodhi tree; and among his surroundings, a bearded figure appears on his right hand and throne supports of the Lamas, and can hardly be sufficiently emphasised. With refer- ence to the spread of Buddhism and the intercourse between different countries, it is interesting to note that the thunderbolt worshipped in Se-ra near Lha-sa originated in Persia (conf. Laufer, Sitzungsber. der Phil. Kl. Bayer-Acad. 1898, III, 8. 591). I would remark that Mira has been received into the system at least of the red- capped Lamas (Padmasambhava’s school) as Tse-ma-ra. He is the tutelary deity of Sam-ye, the most ancient monastery of Tibet, where he enjoys a strange ritual: Jour. Buddh. Text Soc., vol. V (1897), ii, pp. 3-4. But there a tutelary deity also—Kin- kan, i.e. vajra—is worshipped; conf. Jäsche, 7b. Diet. s.v. However, these remarks are not decisive for our reliefs, though they may be of value for the later history of this type.—A.G. 2 In Lahor Museum; see Ind. Monuments, pl. 96; and conf. Rhys Davids, Buddhist Birth-Stories, p. 100. VAJRAPÄNI. 93 one without beard to the left. As to their persons we can say nothing, as almost nought but the shoulders are seen. ‘The identity of the bearded head with that of the thunderbolt-bearer on the Nirvaza reliefs (No. 70) is evident; but we can hardly assume that the attitude here is inimical to the Teacher, or that the two heads represent a good and an evil divinity. In the line of sculptures above, we see the vajra-bearer on Buddha's left—here, too, with a sword—while another deva kneels on the right. The designation Vajrapä»i which we assign to these figures in the reliefs, suggests other conceptions—quite a new phase in the development of Buddhism. We have before us a descriptive term or poetical appellation which has crystallized into a special deity ;!— the term itself was perhaps taken from a Stofra, such as the verses of the Lalrta-Vistara,—a term, indeed, which may even go back to the sculptor’s studio. Let us fancy how the artist receives his com- mission: According as there is more or less space available, the pious donor will pay more or less; a Buddha, a thunderbolt-bearer, a few Nagas, &c., will be brought together from the ready made figures and grouped as desired. Thus we see that we must everywhere work with a history of the types em- ployed,. and that these artist s-Trpes, im detans as well as in whole compositions, may be used for dif- ferent individuals and different events. Doubtless, in the development of the Gändhära period, changes of inter- pretation may have taken place, even through the artist himself. Let us remember that the huts of the Middle Ages were often the birthplaces of new doctrines: thus the idea strikes us that the Greculi and their disciples, who executed the first reliefs in Gandhära, were not without their influence on the religion. The artist is surely the first exponent of his own work. In the circum- stances we have here, such must have been the case, when a mythology had to be first created from fixed types. No one has described this better, with reference to the circumstances in Gaul, than M. A. Foucher 1—“ Do you want a Hesus, a Teutätes? We can give you a Mars, a Mercury, and you can worship them under other names. We do not know your goddess Sulcis—you people of Aquz Solis (Bath), but how would it do to make this represent- ation of Athena stand for her image?.. .” If now we consider more closely the early materials from which the Gändhära sculptor chose to represent the Indian legends, there offer themselves as the basis of his types—Zeus represented with the eagle (=Garuda); the eagle with the thunderbolt (vajra); the eagle with Ganymede’ (Garuda with the Nägakanyä: conf. p. 109). 1 On the genesis of new gods from epithets, conf. G. de Blonay, Materiaux pour servir a Vhistoire de la deese Tard, Paris, 1895, p. 64. 2<«T?Art Bouddhique dans l’Inde’ in Revue de Vhistoire des Religions, tom. XXX (1894), pp.366ff. Conf. for Hesus or Esus and Teutätes, Luci, i, 445 ; Lactantius, i, 21. * The employment of this type in the Persian style plays an important part at the period of the migrations of peoples. Conf, Hampel, der Goldfund von Nagy Szent 94 VAJRAPANI : THE ELAPATRA LEGEND. If we call the figure Vajrapami, what is it to be called when it appears twice on the same relief? We must decide (ill. 45),— (1) Whether we should call the one Vajrapami, the other, Mara or Indra (Sakra). The latter is quite possible, since the texts often indicate both (as well as Siva and Rudra) as different gods side by side; or, (2) Whether we should think of the old Indian panoramic scenes which would permit two representations of the same person to appear on the same panel: but, so far as our evidence goes, pano- ramas are usually divided by pillars. The figures also are here so varied in appearance, dress, and attitude that we might readily sup- pose they are different. : The representation relates to the snake king Elapätra.” Elapatra the Naga appears before Buddha in human shape, - in order to hear his teach- ing. Buddha requires him to show himself in his true form as a snake. The Naga answers that he is afraid of the Garudas, the hereditary enemies of the Nagas. Then Buddha commands Vajrapazi to protect him. Vajrapänı does so and the Näga appears as a gigantic snake. The relief shows a small Vajrapazi in the 45. RELIEF FROM RoDH MONASTERY, NEAR background, who raises SanGHAo. (Cole, Pres, Nat. Monts. pl.8). the thunderbolt threat- eningly, while in the foreground the Näga king, accompanied by his wife, stands before Buddha in water, and a second thunderbolt-bearer walks behind the Buddha. The indication of the Nägas is the usual snakes appearing over the heads of the hero worshippers. Sakka, converted into a Vajrapäzi, loses his old Hindu character as a nature god; and, as is common with the Buddhists, he is multiplied into a class of Devas: thus, when Buddha returned to Kapilavastu, “the eight Vajrapazis surrounded him as an escort,” and “divine Sakra, with a multitude of Devas belonging to Käma- Miklös. Budapest, 1885, figs. 4, 10, 11, 39. Compare, further on, for example, the bronze medallion in Speier, Jarhb, des Vereins der Alterthumsfreunde im Rheinlande, Hft. lviii, Tf.1. This combination of the Vajrapä»i with the Garuda still lives in Lamaism: there is a Vajrapäni accompanied by Garudas, the Vajrapäni-äAchärya.— conf, Globus, 1899, S. 1705; and one with Garuda wings, Khyun-shog-chan. Conf. Schiefner, Tibet. Lebens beschreibung des Sdkyamuni, 8.19 [S.A.] ; the same, “Mahäkatyäyana und König Tschandraprady ota,’ in Mem,de l’ Acad. de St. Pétersbourg, tom, XXII (1875), p. 11, MARA: LOCAL DIVINITIES. 95 loka, took their place on the left hand.” VajrapAmi thus got separated from Sakra and was converted into a distinct god, or into a Bodhisattva; lastly, Sakra sinks into a Yaksha.! The later Indian art retained the thunder- bolt bearer: we see him as Sakka, for example, on the Amarävati relief (in ch. iv.)? where he is present when Rähula, Buddha’s son, de- mands his inheritance from his father, and is clothed as a monk. Another figure which, though many handed, we must call Vajrapäzı, is carved in the Visvakarma Buddhist chaitya cave at Elura, and is here given as an example in fig. 47. Though different sculp- tors may have taken their own ways of representing Mära, stıllthere wasa fixed type also for this Deva. He appears, at a later date, in full festal attire, youthful in figure, with bow and arrow; and in this type (fig. 49) he appears at Bud- dha’s temptation. He is thus brought into compar- ison with KämaorSmara, , of the Hindu pantheon, who 47. VAJRAPANI. 46. THE 'THUNDERBOLT From Visvakarma? also bears the naar £ of BEARER. From a relief rock temple (Elura) Mara and Samantaka. The jn Lahor Museum. worship of this latter god seems to have been much cultivated in medieval India. His attri- butes, bow and arrow and Makara, ill. 33 (Dolphin) suggest that there is some connexion with the Greek Eros.* On the relief on ill. 50, the lower subject presents Gautama on his faithful horse Kan¢haka, riding out of the gate to spend his life as a begging ascetic. At the gate, from which the guards are flee- ing, stands a kingly form with a nimbus, the divinity (perhaps) of the palace gate (dvare adhivatthd devatä), and, if so, a local divinity, quite in the style of later Hellenic art. With regard to the Hellenic influence under which the composition originated, it is of interest, further, to note that the right hand of the divinity stretches out into the frame and so points forcibly to what is following. ! In Japan the two temple guardians culled Ni-6, and habitually found at the en- trances, are named as Indra and Brahma; but their type is derived from Vajrapazi (Shoméi-kongo). Vassilief, Ze Bouddhisme (tr. par M. La Comme), pp. 197, and 163; Schiefner, Tib. Lebensbeschr. 8.14. 2 From Fergusson, Tree and Serp. Wor. pl.lix, p. 189. * Burgess, Elura Care Templesin Ar. Sur. W. Ind, vol. V, pl. xix, 4. ‘The Holi or Hüli, the spring festival in honour of Krishna’s sporting with the Gopis, may perhaps be indirectly connected with Käma,— but this is doubtful, 96 MARA’S ARMY. If we now look at a replica of the same subject in the Lahor Museum,! we find there that, in the place occupied by the gate “fh 4 An yy Wi ı A BLIGH Ne UK We % N 6 ji nm Tin Ey“ 48. GANDHARA RELIEF IN LAHOR MUSEUM, divinity, in the first representation, is an archer—perhaps Mära. In the Avidürenidäna, it is related how, at the moment the gate devata 1 Burgess, in Jour. Ind. Art and Ind. vol. VIII, pl. 19, 1, or sep. ed. jo) eee Bed Simpson in Jour, R, Inst, Br, Arch, 3d ser, vol. I (1894), p. 106. MARA AND GAUTAMA: MARA’S ARMY. 97 opened the door, Mara came with the intention of stopping Gautama; and, standing in the air, he exclaimed, “ Depart not, my lord! in seven days from now the wheel of empire will appear, and will make you sovereign over the four continents and the two thousand ad- jacent islands.” When Gautama asks who he is, he receives the reply “I am Vasavatti” (Sk. Vasavarti—‘ acting under the will of another’). Gautama’s victory over the tempter is well represented by the immovable attitude of the chief figure here, as also by that of the umbrella-bearer stepping out vigorously over the relief. It must be admitted, however, that any quite accurate apportion- ment of names for the accessory figures in this composition can hardly. be given, since it has to do with a more or less extended scheme. M ara’s army, which combats Buddha and seeks to drive him from the “ diamond seat” under the Bodhi-tree at Gayä, is effectively represented in the Gandhara school by means of popularised figures of demons which have recervyed at.Greél hands a powerful cha- racterization (conf. ill. 48). The original of this—one of the oldest and finest reliefs—is now in the Lahor Mu- seum. The three low- est figures are soldiers, equipped partly like Greeks,! but with pe- culiar accessories — one wears an Indian loin-cloth and turban, another a kind of three-corneredhelmet 49. MÄRA’S ATTACK ON GAUTAMA. or hat which suggests Painting in Cave I at Ajanta, from Räjendraläl the well-known whit- Mitra’s Buddha Gayd, pl. ii; conf. Griffith, Ajanta, vol. _ Vili, ey-grey felt caps of jantä, vol. I, pl. viii the Tibetans and Khwaresmians: to the heads, represented as quite human, a decidedly demoniacal expression is *given by the great staring eyes and the wild hair of head and beard. It has been doubted whether this relief represents Mära’s army, but its agree- ment with the Aja»/a picture given in ill. 49), which, with the sculptured representation in Cave XX V1,? at the same place, must be considered. The relief arranges these frightful figures in tiers in a ! It suited the stone-cutter who produced this relief, in representing the coat of mail —unintelligible to him—to put the scales with the rounded ends (openings) upwards. Whoever would use these sculptures, therefore, for the history of costume and armour, must be careful. > Burgess, Cave Temples, pl. li and p. 345. ‘There are also two other fragments of _ temptation scenes in Lahor Museum: Ind, Monts, pl. 133. H 98 MARA’S ARMY. very clever way. In the first row are seen ordinary soldiers; be- hind them, in the second row, are the real demons, whose grotesque faces rise one above the other in a most effective way. On the Ajanta representations, also, soldiers appear in the first row, and the 50. GANDHARA SCULPTURE (Lahor Museum), The Bodhisattva Gautama leav:ne home. hob-goblins behind them only. This graduated arrangement pro- duces a quite peculiar effect in the relief. ‘Une figure, the first of the second row, the ample dimensions of which bind the whole MARA’S ARMY. 99 group into a sort of scaling-party, shows this cumulative arrange- ment in a grotesque fashion. The almost fleshless mask, which is evidently intended for a death’s head, grins broadly, while the hairy hands are thrust into the corners of the mouth; on the body of the demon appears a wild bearded face, and over the bare skull there rises a grinning animal’s head that forms the end of a skin cap. Detached elements of this powerful figure are to be found in the art of a later day: figures with faces on their bodies, or with half- macerated skulls, or with animals’ heads over the real head of the figure, have been preserved even in the modern art of the Lamas. It would be an interesting but difficult task to find out how far these 51, FRAGMENT OF A GANDHARA SCULPTURE, The Earth-goddess bearing upon her shoulders the feet of the horse Kanthaka, Before are two men (guards), one in quilted mail with bow. Gändhära forms are shown in the Oni-types, so popular in Japan. The second figure of the second row is very striking. The clubs and peculiar fold of the sleeve are purely Greek; indeed, were it not for the fangs and the demoniacal features, one would be reminded of a Hercules. The three heads of the leader of the group are 100 THE EARTH-GODDESS. almost surpassed by a bearded figure in the third row: only a Greek could have succeeded in combining these skulls, which evidently belong to three faces (though only two are recognisable). This form is unique, and the Hindu artists of later times were incapable of repeating the motif except by placing side by side three dis- connected faces. The little flame on the tip of the tongue of the demon, who is represented with two swords, is also interesting. On the reliefs given in ill. 50, 51 there appears a female figure which calls for special mention. Under Gautama’s horse the upper part of a woman’s body (much destroyed) is seen rising out of the earth. In Greek art the female figure rising thus from the ground is known as Gé or Gaia, the goddess of the earth. On the Buddhist relief, also, it is evidently the goddess of the earth that is intended. This is clear from a description of the situation in the Avidürenidäna of the Jätaka book. There it says, after the description of the repulse of Mara, literally this: “When Gautama desired once more to look back upon the city, the wish had hardly arisen in his mind when the great earth (Pali, Mahäpathavi; Skt. Mahapr‘thivt) turned round like a potter’s wheel, as if to say: ‘thou needest not to turn round in order to look,’ and so let him see the town once more.”! On the relief the feet (now broken off) of the horse Kanthaka evidently stood on the forearm of the Mahäpathavt (ill. 50). Another incident of the Bud- dhist legend, in which also the god- dess of the earth is represented as speaking, is of interest in connection with the question how far art has influenced the sacred texts. When assailed by Mara, Gautama, who is sitting under the Bodhi-tree, calls the Earth to witness that he has acquired | the right of sitting in this place (on alt the “ diamond-throne” —Vajrasana) by reason of his liberal alms-giving | in a previous existence. The de- AN N scription of the incident in the Avıd- ürenidäna says merely that Gautama 50: Gininst Plat oe davon, (aid is hand wpon the arth, where: RELIEF, in the Casa Berberini, uponthe Earth(Mahapathavi) testified Rome. For comparison with No.50.” to his beneficence bya loud rumbling”. Now the description which the much ! Rhys Davids, Buddhist Birth Stories, p.84. Conf. Foucaux, Lalita-Vistara, pp. 186f; A. C. Warren, Buddhism in Transl. pp.61f. 2 Materialen zur Archäologie Russlands, herausgbn. von der k, archäol, Komm., No, 8, St. Petersbourg, 1892, Taf. 14 (Russ.), Conf. below, note on coin of Demetrios. > Rhys Davids, Bud. B. Stories, p 101. Conf. also the Gändhära relief in Arnold’s Light of Asia, illust. ed. p. 19, where the earth-goddess is represented under the Bodhi tree; and a pedestal in Lahor Museum, Jour. Ind. Art and Ind., vol. VIII, pl. 18, 1, or sep. ed. pl. 16; Foucaux, Zalita- Vistara, pp. 271-2, \ Sr VA AN { fa ” ({ NY fanny) usd FEN Wy Eee VE SSS SSS SSE THE EARTH-GODDESS, MAHAPATHAVI. IOI later Lalita Vistara gives of this scene, seems to correspond exactly with the illustrations which show the earth-goddess introduced in the Gändhära sculptures. “ The great earth-goddess, named Sthavara,” it says there, “not far from Buddha, showed half of her body with all her ornaments.” This antique design is best represented by a copy on an ivory relief preserved in Rome! (ill.52). In this instance it has to do with an Emperor-type developed from coin-types (conf. ill. 56 and coin of Demetrios). Now the representations which show the event in profile are 53. Gautama’s MıHÄBHLNISHKRAMANA, OR RENUNCIATION , A relief from Loriyén Ting wi, in Calcutta Museum. remarkable in this that below the hind legs also a figure rising out of the earth supports the horse. Thus, according as it is viewed from the front or from the side, we have two phases, one of which -is due entirely to artistic considerations. It appeared to the artist irregular to place the horse in the side representations merely with the forefeet on a supporting figure (Prithivi), and so he places ! The composition is thus directly connected with the late Roman so-called ‘giant riders,’ e.g. on the pillar of Marten; Duruy-Hertzberg, Gesch. d. röm. Kaiserreiches, Bd. IV, 8.58; F. Hettner, die römisches Steindenkmäler des Prov, Mus. zu Trier, 1893, S.21, Nrs. 31, 32, 33. 102 THE SUPPORTERS OF BUDDHA’S HORSE. the hind-legs also on a figure,—later art has even a supporting figure for each foot of the horse. The real explanation, however, of this artistic phase is something different: we must, in the majority of the figures, think of the deities who raise the horse 54. THE BODHISATTVA LEAVING HIS FATHER’S PALACE, ‘From the Z'rai-p‘um prepared for King P‘aya-tak, about a hundred years ago. (Original in Berlin Museum). Kanthaka. Indeed, in a relief found at LoriyänTangai, the beings that uphold the horse have moustaches (fig. 53).! This sculpture, 1 The legend (Avidürenidäna) represents Gautama as considering whether he cannot leap over the gate while Channa hangs on to the tail of the horse, and it would have happened so if the gate-deity had not opened the gate. We must recognise in the bearded figures the Yakshas which lift high the horse’s hoofs so that their tread may not awaken the sleeping citizens (Beal, Sac. Bks. of the East, vol. XIX, p.57; Ro- mantic Legend, p.136; Rhys Davids, Birth Stories, p.83). But on a sculpture at Lahor, represented in Jour. Ind. Art and Ind. vol. VIII (1898) pl. 22, 1 (or sep. ed. pl. 20, 1, conf. also pl. 11, 2), it is clearly two female figures who support Kanthaka’s hoofs. We have thus a transition from the one to the other, 7.e. we see how the Yakshas have had their genesis in the Gé motif. In the legend of Padmasambhava, which borrows the whole story of the flight from the Bauddha legend, the Dakhinis and Jinns, which bear the enchanted horse, take their origin in this way; conf, Hin Kapitel des Ta-sé-sun, Berlin (1897), S. 5. YAKSHAS SUPPORTING BUDDHA'S HORSE. 103 which measures 19 inches each way, is in the Indian Museum at Calcutta and is exceedingly well preserved. ‘The representation of the Mahäbhinishkramaza or renunciation here given, shows the white horse Kazthaka, as at Amaravatt,! on the flank, and we can note the trappings. Here his feet are borne up by two Yakshas, as mentioned in the Chinese Buddhacharita” Sakra, with the vajra on his palm, follows close behind in the air, and, as usual, is nude to the waist: Chhandaka holds the umbrella over his master’s head ; three other Devas,—one bearing a short sword,—appear in the air in front; and two figures, one of them holding a bow (possibly Mara), stand in front, apparently addressing Siddhartha. Later Buddhist art has retained the uplifting of the horse. Fig. 54 gives an outline sketch of a beautifully finished, though mechanically composed representation from the Siamese 7’va/-P‘um book, painted for king P‘aya-tak about 1780 A.D. Indra leads the horse, four Yakshas bear his feet, Channa holds firmly by the tail, Brahma (of Hindu type) follows with an umbrella, the Vedas and drinking vessel. Before the group stands Mara represented as the prince of demons. Reference may here be made to two goddesses, to the first of which we cannot yet attach any name in Bauddha iconography. Along with a small stüpa, carefully excavated by Major H.A. Deane, at Sikri in 1888, were found two sculptures of considerable interest, now in Lahor Museum: a very emaciated form of Buddha, and the female figure ill. 55. These were first published by M. Senart the western influence in the female figure is quite pronounced. It is 3 feet oS inch in height, but the feet are broken off. Whether she be a symbolic representation or a divine personage, is difficult to determine ; she may even be allied to the carth-goddess in some Mahäyänist form; or she may possibly represent Häriti, who will next be noticed. She is accompanied by three children, one of which sits astride on her right hip in Indian fashion, and which she is about to suckle.* The head-dress and crown surmounting it have also a classical appearance. In other respects, the bracelets on the arms and the anklets are after the Indian fashion: and the pad that appears under the robe near the middle of the body corresponds, no ! Burgess, dmardrali, p. 81, fig. 22; the representation of this scene must have been frequent at Amarävati; besides the one just referred to, see also pll. xvi, 4, xxxil, 4, xxxviii, 5, xl, 1, xli, 6, and Z’ree and Serp. Wor. pl. xlix, 1, or lix, 1. 2 Sac. Bks. of the East, vol. XIX, p.57; conf. vol. XLIX, pt. i, p. 61. 3 Jour. Asiat. 8me ser. t. 15, pll. ii and ii1; reproduced in Znd. Monts, pl. 145, and in Jour. Ind. Art and Ind vol. VLU, pl.3. Lhe illustration No. 55 is the sketch of Mr. J. L. Kipling, in Jour. R.I.B. Arch. (1894), p. 136, by kind permission of the Institute. +A statue at Labor, accompanied by small attendant figures (Jud. Monts. pl. 85) will be noticed later on. Among the sculptures in the Lahor Museum is another, which may be compared with this (Jour. Ind. d.and 1. u.s. pl. 5,1). Iv isa statue of a woman, completely draped, and holding on her left arm a child. Unfortunately, the head and right arm are wanting, and the wuole fragment is much worn and abraded. But the draperies are quite Western in disposition, and the general appearance at once recalls to one’s mind a mutilated statue of the Virgin suckling her child (Senart, J.As, u.s. pp. 141-2). 104 HÄRITI TYPES. doubt, to the girdles which formed a feature of female attire, in a great many cases, at Mathura, at Säncht, at Amarävati, and else- where. On the forehead hangs a jewel, in the form of a star, the cord holding it is clearly indi- cated coming from the hair. It may be noted that in the cut- ting of the eyes, the pupils are marked with the care observable in other works from the same source. The other goddess referred to is a sculpture in the British Museum, about 28 inches in height, also representing a fe- male divinity... She has one child in her lap, one between her feet, and three at each side, of whom two on the left are wrestling,—recalling the expres- sion in the Ratnakita-sitra, that each of Hariti’s children “was possessed of the strength of a great wrestler.” The Sikri figure just described, it may be suggested, is possibly another form of this Yakshini,—or, at least, of some allied being. For we can hardly fail in identifying the British Museum figure as Hariti—‘the mother of demons.’ The Yakshas (p. 45) are described as devouring human beings, and they possibly represent the ab- original local divinities; and, if so,are a survival of demonolatry. This Hariti isdescribed ashaving made a vow in a former birth to | devour the children of Raja- ni 55. N “ grtha, and was accordingly born ; as a Yakshini, and became the husband of the demon king Prajüäka. She became the mother of 500 children,’ all very strong. To nourish these she daily took a child of Räjagr.ha. The people having appealed to Buddha about this, he took her youngest child Pingala—“the loved one ”— ‘Jour. I, Art and In. vol. VIII, pl.4, 2; or sep. ed. pl.2,2, and p.9. - There is a smaller replica of this relief in the Edinburgh University Library. ? Some versions of the legend say “ten thousand; ” the Japanese say “a thousand” but consistency in Bauddha traditious is not to be looked for. From Lalita Vist. ws. p- 177, we might infer that the demon king—chief of the Yaksha army—was called Panchika. MA ie Vy 2 My y Dy EP, A SARASVATI TYPE: THE SAKTI OF MANJUSRI. 105 and placed him in his bowl. The mother sought for him seven days and, failing to find him, applied to Buddha for information. He addressed her—‘‘ Do you so tenderly love your child? yet you have 500 of them. How much more would persons with only one or two love theirs?” On this she was converted and became an Upäsikä, or lay disciple ; and to feed her children Buddha said to her, “ The Bhikshus, who live in their monasteries, shall every day offer you food out of their portion for nourishment.”’ Hence, I-tsing tells us, the image of Häriti was found either in a porch or in a corner of the dining hall of Indian monasteries, holding a babe in her arms, and round her knees three or four children. An abundant offering of food was daily made before it. This “demon mother of children’’ is described as one of the subjects of the Chatürmahäräja devas. In Japan, she is known as Kishimojin, the protectress of the earth, and is represented carrying her youngest child Bingara in her arms, or sometimes with six daughters.! Another Indian goddess must also be mentioned, though she does not appear in the body of a relief itself, but is only employed decoratively : this goddess is represented (in a defaced sculpture in Lahor Museum) sitting sideways on a lion and holding on her knees a musical instrument in the form of a lute (fig. 56). This can only be intended for Sarasvati, the goddess of music, while it remains enigmatical why the goddess, who plays no part at all in the older Buddhist texts, appears here beside the Hindü gods known by the Buddhists. This figure is possibly meant for a local deity. Perhaps, as goddess of Vedic poesy, she received the attribute of the lute. Siri (Skt. Sri), the local goddess of the Asoka Berge ds 1 Wie Sharada et ee Oe not found in the Gandhara sculptures, zrom Ganpmära. A goddess and later she disappears from the Bud- playing the Vina, sitting on a dhist pantheon. But Sarasvati is very lion: a type of the goddess ; : 5 Sarasvatt, prominent not only in Chino-Japanese Buddhism—as the goddess Benten she belongs to the gods of fortune,—but in the Buddhism of Tibet, the so-called Lamaism, she has taken a prominent place among the goddesses of that degenerate form of the old doctrine. She is the only one of the female Energies of the Bodhisattvas whose characteristics are pro- nounced and well-defined; she is the Energy (Sakti) of the Bodhisattva Manjughosha or Manjusri,? with whom we shall dealina 1 I-tsing’s Record of the Buddhist Religion, p.137; Beal, Si-yu-ki, vol. I, p. 110; Bigandet, Ley.of Gaudama, vol.I, p. 245; Archeologia, vol. lvili, p.241; Mahävagga, I, 6, 30; Vinaya Pit., Samyuktavastu, ch.31; and Samyuktaratna-sutra, vii, 106; Guide au Musée Guimet, 1897, p. 208; Catal. au M.G. 1883, p. 218. 2 Grünwedel, Mythol. d. Buddhismus in Tibet, &c., Ss. 152, 155; Schlagintweit, Bud- dhism in Tibet, p. 66, n.; conf. Oldfield, Sketches from Nepal, vol. Ar pp. 177, 186, 267. Sri is one of the nımes of Sarasvati; it is also applied i in Nepal to Mafijusri himself. Waddell sıys no female energy is all otted to M anjusri; Bud. of Tibet, pp. 355-6.—J.B. 106 REPRESENTATION OF NAGAS. subsequent chapter. The figure of Sarasvati thus forms an additional proof of the connexion of the iconography of the northern school with the Gandhara sculptures. In the Gändhära school the Naga has preserved the same type which the older Indian art has created for him. The relief shown in ill. 57,—other replicas of which are known,—repre- sents the Naga-king behind an altar, before which stand Buddha and Vajrapäri. The snake-hood over the head is hardly visible in the illustra- tion, but on the replicas it is clearly seen. The relief re- presents the scene in which a Näga wishes to be ad- mitted into the order. Evi- dently the lower part of the 57. GANDHARA RELIEF, Lanor Museum. Naga’s body, which is to be Buddha attended by Vajrapäni, talking with im agined behi nd the altar, a Naga, From a photo, should terminate in that ofa: serpent. This! isa thoroughly antique refinement which seeks to mitigate the repulsive appearance of the figure, and makes the human form possible for “ ¥ 58. RELIEF FROM LorryAn TANGAI, IN CALCUTTA MUSEUM, Buddha attended by Vajrapini, gods and men, tevching the Nias. the Naga as far as the figure is visible. From the time when a Naga managed to introduce himself, in human form, into the THE NAGAS. 207 monastery till, in sleep or at Buddha’s command, his true form was recognised, the question—whether the novice was a Näga— was 59. BUDDHA, VAJRAPÄNI AND NaGas (Takht-i-Bähi). embraced in the formule for admission to the order (Aammavächä), and to this day the ritual is thus completed. Ill. 58, from Loriyän Tangai, is almost a replica of the same, only the Nägas appear in it to be rising out of water ; and fig. 59, from Takht-i-Bahi, 108 THE NAGAS. is a third example, in which a good representation of Vajrapami appears.! In many sculptures, in the rock-temples, figures of Nagas, both with the full human form, and also showing only the trunk, are represented upholding the Padmäsana or Lotus-throne of the Buddha. With the lotus stalk growing out of water, it is not in- appropriate as a decorative device. This is exemplified in fig. 60 from the Kazheri Caves.” The Naga seems at a later date to have 60, BUD IA’S LOTUS THRONE SUPPORTED BY NAGAs (Kanheri Caves), been looked on as a protecting power (Burgess, Cave Temples, pl. xxxix). But the purely human form with the snake over the head appears also on the sculptures of the Gändhära monasteries. The most remarkable representation of this kind, which evidently was popular as a decoration, has been quite misunderstood by its interpreters. A group—in which an imitation of the Ganymede of Leochares 1 Jour. R, A. Soc. 1899, p. 422. 2 The numerous sculptured panels in the Kanheri Caves, if carefully delineated, would form an important chapter in Bauddha iconography. GARUDA. 109 (B.C. 350)! has been, with reason, recognised,—appears in the Gändhära sculptures in several replicas (conf. ill.61).2 A rather coarsely executed female figure, from the back of whose neck, on the best preserved relief, rises a long snake, is borne into the air by a great eagle. The features of this female figure, whose un- covered right breast escapes from the otherwise ample gar- ments, are distorted with pain: the eagle's beak tears at the serpent. The bird itself has a cap with a kind of fillet and ear-rings! Cunningham tried to explain the group as the ascension to heaven of Maya, Buddha’s mother, who accord- ing to the legend, died seven days after the birth of her son. Apart from the fact that the legends do not speak of an eagle thus carrying off any one to heaven, or even of any sort of ascension, but only of re-birth, —it seems clear from the re- presentation itself that it is intended for a Nagi, z.e. a female snake-demon who is borne off into the air by a Garuda,—for the great bird decked with these ear-ornaments can be none other than the Garuda or Suparza with the golden wings. Legends of such acts are frequentin Bud- _ dhist literature, so that repre- 61. RELIEF FROM SancHio. sentations of them cause no Cole, Pr. Nat, Mon. pl. 3, surprise. The Bauddha drama of Nägä-nanda, already mentioned, will at once occur to the mind in connexion with the representation; but in the ¥d¢akas there are two or three that speak of the Garuda king carrying off a beautiful queen from her husband ;? and it seems here as if he had taken ! Visconti, Mus. Pio-Clement. vol. iii, p.49; Müller, Denkmäler d. alten Kunst, vol. i, pl.36; Zanetti, Statue, vol. ii, pl.7; Stuart’s Athens, vol. iii, pls.2 and 9; Lübke’s Hist. of Sculp. vol. i, p. 187. 2 Cole’s Pres. Nat. Mon. Ind.—Greco-Bud. Sculp. pl. 3; and Anc. Monts, Ind. pl. 113. This important sculpture disappeared at Lahor. Two less perfect examples are represented by Cole. ibid. pll.4 and 17, or Anc, Mon. pll. 114 and 115. Conf.V. Smith, Jour, A. S, Beng. vol. LVIII, pp. 183-35. 3 The Jätaka, ed. Cowell, vol. III, No. 327—Kakati Jdtaka, No.'360— Sussondi Jätaka, and No. 536— Kunala Jdtaka, LO NAGA MAIDENS: BUDDHA’S MOTHER. hold of a Nag? by the neck of the serpent, and is carrying her off, his talons holding her by the waist. The Garuda represents the type that still exists in the northern school (Tibet), and here too it is very frequently represented as tearing a snake-maiden in pieces by thrusting both its talons into her breast. As a decorative motif this group, arranged somewhat differently, is very frequent on gates, in apses, windows, and on throne-backs (conf. ill. 32, &c.). It is quite easily conceivable that the replica of the Leochares group, which was at the disposal of the unknown stone-cutter of Gandhara, must have produced a very great impression. That very attitude of the Garuda (which is represented quite as an animal) to its help- less human victim—to which, in order to heighten the pathos, a female form was given,—was quite in the spirit of Buddhism. If this interpretation requires confirmation, it is found in a fragment in the British Museum, about 6 inches broad by 74 inchesin goes Fe aL eR height (ill. 62). The work is = somewhat coarse and the head of the great bird has been broken off; but here he has been represented as carrying off both a male and female Naga—one in each claw, while a second female lies below, a male stands on the proper right, apparently in an attitude of defence, and traces of a tifth figure are seen on his left. By the name of Buddha's mother it was thought that a series of female figures found in Natthu, near Sanghäo in - the Yusüfzai district, ought to be described. These figures, ees which are mostly very grace- 62. GARUDA CARRYING OFF NAGA YOUTHS. fully and pleasingly executed, (British Museum). stand, with one leg crossed over the other so that one hip protrudes, under trees whose branches they grasp with one hand. One arm is always posed somewhat coquettishly on the protruding hip. Besides the drapery round the legs, three of the four examples recovered wear a sort of jacket, one of which is open down the front; three have scarfs over the shoulders ; and three wear bead-girdles round the loins, with a clasp suspending a leaf-shaped ornament. The hair is waved over the brow and plaited into a wreath above, terminating in knobs; and all wear earrings, necklaces, torques and bangles round the wrists and ankles. The costume proves at once that Maya cannot be represented thus: all these women wear Persian trousers and long jackets with sleeves ; in their hair are fresh lotus-flowers ; BUDDHA'S MOTHER. a like the dancing girls on the ornaments of the architrave of the gateway at Sachi, they may represent NAch-girls employed for side decorations on reliefs of larger groups, or on portions of fagades.! Conf. ill. 63, and above pp. 40, 41. But the pantheon was too numerous to require, even for a decoration, to resort to the merely human or secular individual. The Yakshinis are Dryads as well as spirits of the air; (the Yogints or sorceresses of Hindu myth may possibly be only a modification of the same, of whom six appear in the iconography of Tibetan Buddhism— always dancing naked) ; and we may regard these figures as probably analogous to such devatas as Chula- koka Devata and Chunda Yakshini, found at Barähat. Similar figures are found on mediaeval temples, and even on modern ones.? Maya, the mother of Buddha, and her sister Prajäpati are de- picted on the reliefs in Greek dress— upper and under garments; but with Indian ear-ornaments (Hind. Karan- phil), and large anklets (ghunghru) on the feet. The female figures are remarkably coarse; Indian exagger- ations appear much more distinctly and with a more unpleasant effect in the contours of their figures than in those of the men. A favourite sub- ject is the scene already mentioned, of Buddha’s birth in the Lumbizt { rn. AN N) Yon) IH K ih { A kg \ | | my | Hy N, \ Nd Nh EA garden. As Maya is stretching out 63. DANCING FIGURE. her hand to grasp the blossom of a From Natthu Monastery. säla-tree, the child springs from her Cole. Pr. N. Monts. pl. 15. right side, is received by Brahma, and being set down, advances seven steps with the boast, “lam the best in the world.” On this relief (ill. 64), from Loriyän Tangai, now in the Calcutta Museum, we may note the appearance of the child twice to indicate both the birth and the assertion of greatness. The legends mention chdmaras and a chhatra appearing in the air; and ' Conf. Cole, pll. 10 and 15,2; or Pres, Nat. Monts. (1896), pl. 93, and Anc. Mon. pl. 116, 2; and Fergusson, Tree and Serp. Wor. pll. iii, 1, ix, and xiii. * Among Buddhists a woman representing a goddess to be worshipped is also styled a Yogini. For the Yakshas, see above p. 45; Burnouf, Introd. (2nd ed.), pp. 480, 936-7; Notes on Ajanta Paintings, &c. p. 103 and figs. 32-36; Arch, Sur. W. India, vol. III, pll. xx, 4; xxi, 5-7; and xxvi, 4-6, 10162 BUDDHA'S MOTHER. in this relief a chémara is represented above the head of Brahma. Sakra and other gods were also present. This sculpture is about 18 inches high. On the relief shown in ill.64 an ancient Nike type has supplied the prototype for the figure of Maya Another repre- sentation also from Swat (fig. 65) includes two of the women in attendance on Mayadevi together with the same three Devas as before. 64. SCENE IN THE LUMBINi GARDEN, From Loriyän Tangai, In Caleutta Museum. This mode of representation of Gautama’s mother continues in later art. The Tibetan figure sketched in No. 66, so far as the Maya is concerned, rests distinctly on the Gändhära form; but in later Indian reliefs (as at Amarävati, Fergusson, Tree and Serp. Wor. pll.Ixv and xci) the Maya looks exactly like the Nach girls BUDDHA'S MOTHER. 113 mentioned above. It naturally occurs to one that here we have to do with an instance of Bud- dhist myth formation, which has been developed in con- nexion with aspecialartistic type. The application of an existing model to a distinct legend gives rise to a want of clearness, which unfor- tunately we too often meet with. In Gandhara the model is artistically differ- entiated by modification of the costume and by the manifest adaptation of an ancient Niké for the re- presentation of Gautama’s mother. As regards the origin, we have here one of the instances where arch- zology aids in ex- plaining the texts by pointing to the source of Indian myth formation.! A peculiar figure, the signification of which it is difficult to fix, appears on the reliefs which represent Buddha’s death (conf. ill. 70 and the fragment No. 77), at the foot of the victor as he enters Nirvana. A fully-clothed, earnest-looking,un- bearded man,whose head is so envel- 65. THE LUMBINi SCENE, Fragment, from a photograph. C2 ar, N a Sy 66. MAYA IN THE LUMBINY GARDEN. . er The infant Siddhärtha springs from her right side and the Ope - In a close- vods receive him. From an old picture (companion to fitting cap or cowl Nirvana picture ill, 75). that only the face _ is visible, holds in his left hand, on the different replicas of the ' On this compare the pertinent remarks of L. de la Vallée Poussin, Bouddhisme, Etudes et Matériaux (Lond. 1898), pp.169f. The Devadäst dancing under the tree has, moreover, continued in Brähmana art. Thus one is found represented on the Brahmaza Picture of the World in the Tanjor Library, of which a copy is in the Ber- lin Museum, | FIGURE AT BUDDHA’S FEET. scene,! a staff with what might be intended for a sort of noose or 67, FIGURE OF A BRÄHMANA. Gandhära: from a photo. loop at the upper end of it. Might this represent the mendicant friar’s jingling staff—the hi-ki-la, (Tib. hKhar-gsil) carried by the bhikshus of the nörthern schools ;? or was that intro- duced so early as to appear in these sculptures ? Though the dress may possibly give the figure the appear- ance ob a messenger, we can hardly take it for the messenger of Yama, the god of death; nothing in the legends would suggest this ; and in Buddha’s Nirvana there is clearly no question of a death,—though such a figure, typifying the event, would agree with the char- acter of the latest Hellenic art. Nor can it be Chunda the smith, who, supplied Buddha with his last feast (karı and pork),—for neither | _ does he figure in the legends on this occasion, and his tongs could hardly be mis- represented by such a staff as appears in his hands. May we not then conjecture that it was intended for the monk Kasyapa who, though not actually present at the parinirväna scene, arrived afterwards and, asking that he might see the feet with the marks that had prog- nosticated Buddha’s destiny, was honoured by the prodigy of the feet appearing of them- selves? Käsyapa and Ananda are the two personages pious Buddhists would expect to be repre- 1 Ane. Monts. Ind pll.121,2; 115, 4; 122; or Cole, Greco-Bakt, Sculp, pll.16, 2; 17,4; and 22; J, Ind. Art and Ind. vol. VIII, pl. xiii, 5; or sep. ed. pl. xi, 5; also figures 70, 72, 74, and 77. 2 The Singhalese monks follow the early orthodox fashion—making no appeal for alms. Copleston, Buddhism, pp, 448f, THE BRAHMANAS. 115 sented in the scene. Käsyapa learnt of the decease by seeing some one (Subaddha?) carrying one of the Mandärava flowers that had fallen at Kusinära. Might he not, further, be indicated by such a flower on the head of his staff? In some, perhaps later, replicas this figure has disappeared, as it were, among the mourners, without being “assigned any other special röle. I have now enumerated those gods and demi-gods of the Gändhära sculptures known to me. As re- WV = | 9 2 ry 7 the Brähmanas take the first place (conf. ill. 67,68). Generally speaking, the type must be the same as that of the Asoka ai period, making allow- a ER ance, of course, for its “ae S SSS SSS SS a ESS SNS SS SSE further development. They are represented as bearded mensimply dressed; the hair is not dressed turban- wise in plaits about the head, as at Sancht, but fastened together like a krobylos, in a ff wavy tuft on the top 1 SER, SIR SS SSSI = x SSS SS SS eee NY =} BS Ze —— Ss Sin \ of the head. Most frequently they are represented as old men leaning on a : staff or led by their 68. RELIEF FRAGMENT FROM SWÄT, disciples, and several An old Brähmana sitting on a pillow of straw under a of the older of these leaf hut, a scholar behind, Original in Berlin Mus, Brahmamza represent- ; ations (ablind old man occurs frequently) are of uncommon artistic merit. See also below, fig. 93. Among the other figures—men and women of different conditions —apart from the fact that different races are represented, there occur two kinds of types from a stylistic point of view: beside purely Hellenic forms, the Indian element is very prominent. Generally speaking, the principal figures, Buddha, kings, gods, and so on, have on the whole rather the ideal Greek types, while the other figures are less and less conspicuous according to their im- portance. But, among uncouth and coarse figures of inferior composition, there would also seem to appear a purely Greek type, which haply may have suggested itself as appropriate. The repre- 116 HINDUS AND BARBARIANS: FEMALE DRESS: YAVANANIS. sentations of royal figures (conf. ill. 88, and in ch. iv) are of great in- terest from an antiquarian point of view, especially as regards orna- ment and dress. Long breast-chains, the clasp of which lies on the breast and ends in two animals’ heads, festooned cords with square appendages, which now-a-days would be called 7a’wiz (tdbi7)— amulets—are especially striking. In the more important types the old Indian costume is always found. Along with these barbarian types, men of small stature are prominent—with features that are certainly not Indian and heavy moustaches, clad in trousers and long coats with sleeves ; and again horsemen and camel-drivers in costumes that are not Indian, and others of the same kind. It has already been mentioned that the dress of the women, where the principal figures are intended, is mostly Greek, although the ornaments—earrings and anklets—are Indian. An interesting feature is presented by the armed women, the female body-guards of the kings, who were well known to the ancient historians and are spoken of in Indian literature as Yavanänis—lonian women, 7.e. women from lands under Greek rule (conf. ill. 81). Among the subordinate figures, as we have already mentioned, there appear women in Persian dress: wide trousers, sleeved tunics reaching to the knee, and loose upper garments resembling shawls. The chief significance of these single figures lies in their bearing on the history of religion and civilisation; as regards their artistic value the following judgment should perhaps be pronounced upon them. The employment of the types, above described in detail, of which the reliefs are composed, is only a more or less clever adapt- ation in a new domain, of the finished phrases of an art already in decadence, whose moral earnestness, as seen in particular modifi- cations, lends them a charm which rests indeed only on this change of role. These types, created, perhaps at the word of command, by the dynastical interests or by the personal initiative of one of the Hellenic kings who favoured Buddha’s religion, have a certain de- velopment which, as we pass from replica to replica, ends with a degeneration in which individual ideal forms, preserved as by miracle, appear beside creations which are childish and coarse. But that their genesis was accomplished with great ability and intelligent deliberation will be seen by the treatment of the relief as regards its composition. The permanence of single types, as well as of whole compositions in the sacerdotal sculptures of the northern school, proves how greatly native interest has been excited thereby. In truth, the tradition of the northern school proves very reliable. Later on, in speaking of types of Buddha, we shall have occasion to point out that the miniatures of Tibet (paintings and bronze casts) are capable of affording very substantial and unexpected aid in correctly explaining not only the single figures but also the compositions as such. Unfortunately, space does not allow me to enter into all the consequences of this fact: all that I may REPRODUCTION OF FIXED TYPES. 217 hope to attempt is to represent convincingly the facts and thereby to explain correctly the sculptures to be noticed. As a preliminary to entering upon this subject, it is further necessary to compare the Chinese and Japanese pantheons, as well as their favourite compositions, with those of the Lamas, in which case a history of the types, going back to the sculptures of the Gändhära school, must be attempted. It is a troublesome task, but only in this way is a scientific archeology of Bud- dhism made possible. Many interesting re- sults may be obtained from a special study of the Gändhära sculptures by them- selves combined with tentative efforts to trace those types which are already known to us from the history of Hel- lenic and other art; butthis investigation will always have to cope with the great- est difficulties, and be exposed ‘to 69. BUDDHA WITH DISCIPLES. strange mistakes. A Relief from Takht-i-Bähi: original in Berlin Museum. remarkable proof of this was the supposed seizure of Maya by the eagle! To leave the ecclesiastical tradition of the northern school out of account is absurd. That certain forms became quite changed in their development, were absorbed again into ecclesiastical art, and obliged to give place to new formations, is explained by the evolution of new sects; and if we take into consideration the constant equalizing efforts of Buddhism, we cannot wonder that individual elements again become models for new arrangements ; and fresh interpreta- tions are always possible. But I must defer the detailed discussion of this and many other questions. If we now pass to the compositions,—one of the most interesting and frequently repeated is the death of Buddha (the Mahäparinirväna, ill. 70-74, 77). We shall treat this representation in some detail, and it may be well to remember that the legends ought to be our guides: in attempting to interpret the scenes, we 118 REPRESENTATION OF THE NIRVANA. ought in the first place to look for the personages referred to in the literature. We may not import others that are not mentioned, in order to explain what we may not quite understand. In the middle of these reliefs the dying teacher lies on a raised couch (Hind. chärpäi); the deities and monks stand round him. Te fi =p i OY N ip le \ Ne From Cole, Pr. Nat. Mon. pl. 32. NM N N a ON | —e= > en 5 NR. A a N Reet Dn NR F< “a Lasse = ES: a = ra 70. RELIEF FROM THE LOWER MONASTERY AT NATTHU NEAR SANGHAO. In ill. 70 the vajra-bearer stands beyond, lifting his arms in despair. One of the monks (Ananda) has fallen to the ground in his distress, while another, at the head of the couch, raises him by the hand. The figure at the feet,! who has already been mentioned (p. 113), has his robe (chaddar) drawn over his head, somewhat as women wear 1 Inthe Ajanta sculpture (Burgess, Amardvati, p.99) this personage seems to be represented by the large figure behind the feet of Buddha, and there he has no rod. In the Bombay V. and A. Museum is a much damaged replica, 14 inches by 11, of ill. 74, and another in batter preservation (21 inches by 15) without the fallen monk, and with Vajrapäni behind the figure at the feet. Both are from Marjan tope near Miyan Khän. There is also another copy, about 20 inches by 15, from Chinglai Stipa, much like the two figured in ill. 70 and 72.—J.B. REPRESENTATION OF THE NIRVANA. | 119 the sdrz; he carries a thick rod or staff,—sometimes it is repre- sented as a number of thin rods bound together (/fasces),—the upper end being thicker or broader than the shaft. Whoever he in India Museum, Calcutta. 71. MAHAPARINIRVANA SCENE FROM LORIYAN TaNGat: may represent, he is deeply interested in the decease: can it be Käsyapa? The background of the compositions is almost always filled in by the traditional two sala trees of the little wood of Kusi- 120 REPRESENTATION OF. THE NIRVANA. nara, and among their foliage we usually find represented the Devis who resided in, or watched over them, and who, on the occasion of the decease, are said to have thrown down beautiful flowers on the Buddha and sung in his praise. Devatas, Nagas, and other super- natural beings also showered Mandarava flowers (Lr ythrina fulgens) till they were knee-deep. This is probably the meaning of the flying figures in the upper part of the relief ill. 71. a ii * © EN | nt SR NG 72. MAHAPARINIRVANA SCENE FROM LORIYAN TANGAI. The monk sitting in front beside the tripod water-cooler (ill. 71) appears in most of the reliefs, generally, but not always, facing the couch. He appears also in the Ajazza relief. In the sculpture from Loriyän Tangai, in the Calcutta Museum, measuring 2 ft. 4 in. long by 1 ft. 4in. high, we have one of the most artistic represent- ations as well as the most elaborate in detail (ill.7r). In this, and in another from the same locality (ill. 72) ‚we observe that the fallen figure is Vajrapami. The replica (ill. 73) from Kafarko¢ in Swat, and now in the British Museum, is on a slab 16 inches long by 10 high, and there VajrapAzi is represented standing at the head of the REPRESENTATION OF THE NIRVANA. 127 couch, holding up his right hand in dismay and grief at the demise of the Master whom he had constantly followed to protect. The relief from Natthu (ill. 74) is almost a copy of this. The representations of this subject differ in minor details, but the general features seem to persist down to modern times: these permanent features must have been regarded as essential. In most iz ee | RELIFF FROM KÄFARKOT, SWAT VALLEY. In the British Museum. 73. BupDHaA’s NIRVANA. ios soe ze - nn ns a a a of the copies of this scene we find these,—(1) the small figure of an ascetic seated in front of the couch on which the dying Säkyamuni lies; (2) Vajrapä»i—the bearer of the vajra; (3) a naked figure close by; (4) the Sala trees, between which the couch was placed, usually with the Tree Spirits (females) rising among the foliage and adoring the Teacher; (5) the robed figure with (or without) a rod or baton, at the foot of the couch; and (6) the gods and other 1222 ATTENDANTS AT THE NIRVANA. attendants. Careful study may yet determine satisfactorily who are intended by each of the individuals thus represented; but the legends must be our guide. We read of Subhadra, the Brahmana heretic (possibly a follower of the naked Tirthakas) being converted by the dying Buddha and immediately entering Nirvaza; of Ananda, Aniruddha and Upävana attending the dying Master; of Vajrapami's great grief; of the visit of the Malla chiefs of Kusinära; and of Kasyapa’s arrival and worship of the sage’s feet.! Possibly these may be identified in one or other of the reliefs. il i Ti aa ran I Ar) i 1 m IHR I, 74. Buppna’s Nirvana. Relief from the upper monastery at Natthu (Yüsufzäi). From Cole, Pr. Nat. Monts., pl, 16. Among the striking features presented by the Gändhära sculptures is the fact that, beside figures of quite perfect formation, cases of awkwardness occur that otherwise appear only in works of primitive art. The sketch (ill. 74) of the Nirväza scene shows the usual arrangement with the deities round the couch, &c. Here the well- formed figure at the Buddha’s feet and the stiffly depicted monk alone represent contrasts such as are met with only in the decay of art. The mechanically executed figure, too, of the reclining Buddha, from the expression of the face, is simply a standing figure laid down. If we turn the picture round, we have simply the up- right statue before us. This composition —two other replicas of which are found in Cole’s collection’—gives evidence of having been long in vogue, for modern 1 Rockhill, Life of Buddha, p.138. he Avaddna Sataka (x,10) mentions that on the occasion of the Nirvana, a Bhikshu, Sakra, Brahmä, and Aniruddha each chaunted a separate verse. [In the above descriptions I have not quite followed Professor Grünwedel’s text.—J.B. | 2 Cole, u.s. pl. 16,2; or Ind. Monts. pl. 121; conf. Cole, pl. 17, 4, and 22 COMPOSITIONS WITH MORE OR FEWER FIGURES. 123 Tibetan and Chino-Japanese representations (conf. ill. 75 and 76) still show clear signs of having been based on the old Gändhära reliefs. Clearly the entour- age of Buddha's - death-bed has grown with the em- bellishment of the Buddha legends. Along with Bud- dha’s chief disciples are assembled as mourners not only representatives of all classes of the gods, but of all the demons: Nagas, Garudas, all sorts of monsters, and representatives of all living creatures. Particular figures, still clearly defined in Gandhara, as we have already men- tioned, have dis- re int 3 5 IYA-N v= if 5 appeared from the 75.2 IRVÄNA (Mya NGAN ‚DAS) OF GAU TAMA (SHA KYA-THUB-PA). From an old 'Tibetan painting, number of the Original in Berlin Museum. mourners. It is * one of the ingenious suppositions of Vincent Smith that th subject-matter of this most expressive composition of old Buddhist art has been derived from Greek and Roman sarcophagus reliefs. The composition of the reliefs of the Gandhara monasteries is throughout based upon ancient models. The relief itself is set deeper than was the case in the older Indian art: for the sculptors of the Asoka period, and of the schools that sprang therefrom, executed hardly any but flat reliefs. The individual figures of the Gändhära reliefs are types of statuary arranged beside one another, starting from the middle, and groupd always according to the import- ance of the individual figure (conf. ill. 45, 69, &c.). The same figure can even be used in the representation of different scenes: thus the figure of Buddha in the different scenes of his life is based upon a reproduction of a few statuary motifs; this adapt- ability is remarked in the case of accessory figures, e.g. (ill. 46 and 48) gods, disciples, spectators, devotees, soldiers and servants. We at once think of model figures brought together in the mechanical execution, more or less numerous according to the means which the donor wished, or was in a position to spend on a relief. Side figures ER MD TE amy Sant N a) LU “> AEE =o => Nr ay IS ON Sin a De LI sse NaN \ 7s oS dl ZN GHANN N USS Above the a figure that in one relief s,in another may throw stones—even at Buddha. Zu nz WANA AN & = Ki \\ a A) NASA FL gs COMPOSITIONS WITH MORE OR FEWER FIGURES. would sometimes change their röles: throws down flower 124 . KE AN \ IR | = ¢ i 7 c Bp a FR, | A) AN A Japanese painting from a is surrounded by his disciples, couch of the dying i ntatives of all of living beings. classes g mother of Buddha, descending from heaven. Original in Berlin Museum. Buddha- Pantheon von Nipon. eepin ANA OF GAUTAMA BUDDHA. The Conf. Hofmann, gods, and represe Sala trees is the w NIRV Chinese copy. 76. permanent in the northern canon; in Java, the compositions are also put From these reliefs, which have This form of composition, due to ancient influences, is retained in on the reliefs of Boro Budur, together according to this plan. ddhist art and is powerful and Bu PARALLEL COMPOSITIONS. 125 been constructed purely on antique models, and which, separated from one another by small columns and pillars, have served as gallery decorations, a series of scenes is afforded by slabs known to me, which are either model compositions (this is more rarely the case), or which have been copied from still older ones. It thus happens that the composition in its principal features varies only slightly in the replicas; but that besides slabs where the figures are numerous —a ‘scriptio plena’ as one might say— there is often found a ‘defectiva,’ which retains the main design but curtails IN Net I nl) | s ‘Yes pes) the rest, thus fre- | 7 a CZ quently omitting | . N pei IS | IS just what is most Ms a Y DEN A| important. Of the “ el: 7% N following scenes Fat more or less com- plete replicas are \Ü W's to be found—I shall If UN mention only a few | IN al —the birth of |\ Yu u "4 Gautama in the Viti: hy I i er il, 4 All Lumbinigarden, in full composition _ 2 Maps Penapall: Co Do Na Eee pt . . Brahma, Sakka be- Original in Berlin Museum. hind Prajapatt, girls with palm-branches and pitchers (conf. ill. 64, 86, and Cole, pl tis 2) 10 [only two girls] ; Vincent Smith, pl.g). Gautama leaving his palace, in full composition: Gautama on horseback on the shoulders of the earth, before him the palm-bearer, beside him Mara, guards in flight, and god of the gate (conf. ill. 50, 51 and 54). The simplest form of this representation shows only the Bodhisattva riding out from a gate.! In this composition the artistic element is striking (conf. p.27). Further, a series of scenes from the miracles of Gautama while he sojourned upon the earth. The construction of these last-named reliefs is usually thus :—In the centre stands Gautama coming from the left, near him Vajrapazi alone or with disciples and people also near; Gautama ‘Conf, Arnold, Light of Asia, ill. p.86; Burgess, Amardvati, p. 81. 126 COMBINED COMPOSITIONS. KÄSYAPA LEGEND. opposite; then Gautama with his entourage, converts or devotees (cont. alles; 69). Gautama usually takes a position reminding us of the ancient sacrificing commanders, the alms-bowl (fdtra) taking the place of the patera (conf. ill. 79 and Veréffentlichungen aus d. Kgl. Mus. fiir Vilkerkunde, Berlin, V, 130). These compositions, generally very similar, must no longer be regarded, I think, as representations of a fixed legend, but as a mark of respect for Buddha on the occasion of a conversion, a miracle, &c., which had been performed by him. From architectural considerations, uniformity of the relief may have been the standard for these forms. According to this, we would have before us the very reverse of the Asoka style. In these compositions (conf. pp. 65ff.) the situation is always broadly and readily worked out, but generally without a central group, as Buddha is wanting in them. But in the Gandhara representations we have Buddha and his entourage as a model, which, by certain local indications, attributes, and such like, is apparently described as connected with a certain legend. Unfor- tunately, this model has proved absolutely indestructible in later Buddhist art. As an example, let us select some reliefs representing a legend that has already been brought under no- tice, from which the differences will be made more distinct. Besides these re- liefs, composed so as to constitute a series, each of which di a; A Ay Qh Re gives by itself a Al nl ; PP >> x ] d lf if ı See comp ete and selt- weir } interpreting repre- 78. UruvinvA KASYAPA AND THE FIRE wonpER, SCDtation, we very Grünwedel, Buddh. Stud. 8.8, Abb. 10. frequently find a blending of two or Pe more compositions on one slab. I have treated in detail the representation of the conversion by Buddha of Uruvilva Käsyapa as it is pictured on the reliefs of the east gateway at Safichi (above p.61). The theme is also a favourite one in Gandhara. The first part of the legend (the fire-miracle, conf. above p. 62) is 1 These last-named compositions, therefore, take the place of the schematic repre- sentations of the Asoka period characterized in note 1, p. 67, KASYAPA LEGEND AS A SEPARATE COMPOSITION. 127 also represented in detail on the relief from Gandhära sketched in ill. 78. The disciples endeavour to quench the fire with their 16/as filled with water, while Käsyapa arrives leaning on his staff. Buddha stands behind him with the snake in his alms-bowl. But this relief belongs to the detailed narrative panels, forming the upper portion of a larger slab, the under half of which is almost completely destroyed.' The sketch of the thunderbolt-bearer on 79. GANDHARA RELIEF IN LAHOR MUSEUM. Conf. Beal, Romantic Legend, p. 296f.; Fergusson, Tr. and Serp. Wor. pl. 1xx. ill. 46 is taken from the lower part, which is very interesting in con- nexion with the Käsyapa legend. The story relates further that Käsyapa still did not bow. Then Buddha caused the whole precincts to be flooded, and walked away over the water in presence of the Brähmanras. Both phases of the ! See Ind. Monts. pl. 131, fig.1. Conf. Beal, Romantic Legend, p. 295, 128 KASYAPA LEGEND ABBREVIATED. legend seem now to be employed in order to celebrate Buddha as master “over fire and water.” To this belong two reliefs which are among those running continuously: ill. 79, 80. On ill. 79, Buddha is seen standing, turned slightly to the right, surrounded by laics— men and women; the bearer of the thunderbolt—in this instance, a bearded figure—follows him ; water springs up before him in which stand lotus flowers. It might be doubted whether this represented the water wonder of Uruvilvä, but Buddha holds in his right hand his alms-bowl,—as the ancient sacrificing commander does the patera,— but,—owing to its derivation from a foreign type,—it is repre- sented very small, and in it lies the snake. This proves the connexion of this relief with the Käsyapa legend. In relief No. 80, Buddha appears between eight worshippers, Er _ facing us, with his right hand raised ; N A (Cay ) 4 water springs up under him, on which a digs wm p> 54 te stands. His nimbus is surrounded NEST by fl I beli have h FNP BES SNE y flames. elieve we have here the al (SAN >) 3 most abbreviated form of the repre- jy sentation of the Uruvilvä miracle: , ) ‘i Buddha is reverenced as master of the 7 Wy) yj \ 2 N) elements of fire and water.! It is in- | Alt = MI { teresting to compare this with the UA SM Tt representation of this legend at Ama- rivatt: Fergusson, 7ree and Serp. re Wor. pl. xx. This is still from the So iia. Ühler Pros th, Moni, standpoint of the old school: there pl. 17. Buddha is awanting, but is expressed by the Dharma symbol. A further example of the combined panel is found in ill. 50, and the closely related one in No. 81; both belong indeed to the older period when the figures were all represented of the same size. A reduced and much curtailed replica of the whole composition appears above the chief figure on the relief from Muhammad Nari, shown in ill. 82. All three represent the leaving home of Gautama. On the first-named relief, the upper composition is much destroyed, though Gautama is seen rising from his couch; beside it stand two female figures almost completely defaced, and an armed Yavanäni. The lower composition has been more fully described above. On the small replica (ill. 82) the rising from the couch is represented in the lower composition: sleeping women sit in the corners. The upper representation, which unfortunately is injured also, shows Gautama, and under him the Mahäpafhavt on whose shoulders Gautama him- self stood; before him, as it appears, his faithful Channa, and behind him the head of his horse Kanthaka. Better preserved and quite distinct in all details is the relief from Jamälgarhi, now in the Lahor Museum, represented in ill. 81. It gives two stages of the story, and is also specially interesting from 1 Zeitsch. d, Deut. Morg. Gesells. 1898, $. 460, note 1. A OTHER COMBINED REPRESENTATIONS. 1209 its architectural forms in which we find such a mixture of styles, — the alcoves panelled on the roofs in the later Gr&co-Roman style, the pillars with Persepolitan capitals and Indian bases, the Buddhist rail pattern of frieze, and the ornate Hellenic or Roman torus. The ll h U l N “ N il tah Y N I} Ru 4 Inu = —= au ( =| Sa et I 81. GAUTAMA BUDDHA ABOUT TO LEAVE HOME. Relief from Jamälgarhi in Yüsufzäi. (Lahor Museum). upper portion of the sculpture shows Gautama reclining on a couch, attended by women, one of whom sits on the front of the couch with her feet on a stool (padapitha), and one behind seems to fan him, and girls are performing on musical instruments—a flat harp (such as is still used in Burma), drums, a flute, and cymbals (Zalas) ; while two dancing girls (kanchukin?)—one on each side—beyond the pillars, shew their performances. The lower half of the slab 130 LEAVING HOME. presents Gautama seated on the front of his wife’s couch, contem- plating the sleeping musicians. He then felt more disgusted, we are told, with the vanities of life, and determined to accomplish the renunciation (abhinishkramana). Behind the couch are two spirits, Ta i WU) AUN AY \ INN SL 82. RELIEF WITH BUDDHA ENTHRONED. Found at Muhammad Nari in Yüsufzäi. Cole, Pr. N. Monts. pl. 1. one in the form of an old man, possibly Dharmacharin, who made all the sleepers contort themselves, or Lalitavyüha, who prevented all sounds from being heard. To the right and left, in niches or windows, are Yavanänis, or Ionian female guards—two of whom are armed with spears. Above, from a balcony, the gods look down: Sirya (the sun) to the right and Chandra (the moon) to the left of a bull, that is the sign Taurus (7ävuri or Vaisdkha). It was on Tuesday, at the full moon of Vaisäkha in the Nakshatra or asterism of Visäkhä, that the legends say Gautama was born, and GAUTAMA’S FLIGHT. COMBINATION OF SCENES. 131 this representation would agree with that date. But the conception and renunciation are both placed at full moons of Ashädha (June- July) in the Nakshatra Uttara-Ashädha, when the sun would be in Karka or Cancer, and in conjunction with Pushya (Tishya) “ the king of stars.”! The representation then seems intended to show the sun in connexion with the constellation of the Bull, perhaps between two personified “houses” of the moon in the month Ashadha: evidently the night of that month on which the moon was full was thereby intended. Perhaps this is an indication of the date when, in the artist's opinion, Gautama's flight took place ; but it does not agree with the tradition, but with the date of the birth. But this is by the way. What is important here is the similarity of the whole composition to early Christian ivory tablets. By the combination of different scenes in one relief, the old principle of composition is thus again reverted to, according to which the complete representation of the different phases of an event was related, as it were, by the repetition of the same figures. Yet, owing to regularly arranged decorative elements, the different groups remain separated. The influence of ancient art was also strong enough to preserve the prominence of the principal scene or of the chief figure, to which the others had to be subordinated. Many reliefs contain a representation of Buddha as principal figure enthroned in the centre, and on the left, on a smaller scale, stand servants or worshippers ; and smaller compositions, often only rows of figures, are found under and above the central group. Among the reliefs from the monasteries of Gandhara are semi-circular pediments containing a principal scene below, and two concentric arches over it, filled with smaller figures (ill. 58, 84). One of the most richly carved of these pieces in the Calcutta Museum is a pediment slab from Loriyän Tangai (fig. 83), measuring 3 feet wide by about 25 inches high,—a portion having been broken from the top. On the capitals of pillars that appear at each side sit Devas adoring the Buddha who occupies the centre. In a band just inside the outer moulding of the arch are figures, perhaps also of Devas, one above another ; within this is a torus covered with leaf or scale ornament, and inside this again two arches divide the area into a lower semi-circular and two upper lunulate spaces. The narrow ends of the lunular areas are occupied by dragons or Nagas having snake bodies, fish tails, wings, forefeet, and human busts. Above them are human or divine figures worshipping Buddha enthroned at the apex of each arch. In the scene below, Buddha sits under ! The Lalita Vistara in one place (pp. 54-55) fixes the conception at the full moon of Vaisäkha, in the nakshatra Visäkhä, and “ when in conjunction with Pushya”; but Pushya (8 Cancri) being scarcely 70° east of Taurus, the full moon must have ‘been fully seven hours behind it; and if the conception were not in Ash&dza, the birth could not have been in Vaisäkha, as is always stated. Conf. 8. Hardy, Man. Budh. pp. 144, 149, 163; Lal. Vist. pp. 26, 74, 185, 191,193; Kern, Man. Buddh. pp. 13n., 17. se 132 COMBINATION OF SCENES. a canopy and preaches his Law to a group of females on his right and males on his left, while figures (Devas?) look down from balconies above on each side. Buddha in the Tushita heavens, In the Indian Museum, Calcutta. N TANGAT. yA 83. RELIEF FROM LORI + von — whither he is said to have gone to teach and convert his mother, may be suggested by this scene: but the identification is altogether uncertain. Terraces are also occasionally carved to separate the different parts of a relief, and then the whole scene reminds one of a festal procession marching through a crowded street in which the cult- picture is shown as stationary or is being carried along. The Chinese pilgrims describe such festivals in which the faithful - upon the roof- STELE REPRESENTATIONS. MODERN PICTURES. 133 terraces showered down wreaths of flowers upon the great idols.! The construction of the sacellum in the temple, with the image of Buddha in the middle and the ornamental reliefs round about, provided another model for these compositions. The stelés, in the centre of which Buddha stands or sits, are then much reduced; beside him are disciples and monks : above rises a pointed arch, in which a conversion-scene—as replica of some much em- ployed composition —is repre- sented (ill. 84)” Pillars— before which stand followers of Buddha, or groups reduced from larger compositions— make a complete whole of the slab. It is very interesting to find that this kind of stelé com- position is still stereotyped in the style of the reliefs, and especially of the pictures of Tibetan ecclesiastical art and of the Buddhist school of Japan. This is most strikingly shown by a comparison of ill.82 with the modern Tibetan picture from N ga-ri-Khor-sum (ill. 85): the connection is very WM, 7) | SRS 5 UW SA; striking. At any rate, the Au 8 transitions mentioned prove UMMA a ee as) en > 84. STELE FROM JAMÄLGIRI. that in the main the Gan- From a sculpture in 8, Kensington Museum. dhara sculptures dominate the From Fergusson and Burgess, Cave Temples. art of northern Buddhism, so P- 138. that we may justly hope that an acquaintance with the iconography The splendour of these ancient feasts, as well as many characteristic features still to be found in Tibet, Mongolia, and especially in Siam and Japan even in modern times, shows that Buddhist pessimism cannot have been so very terrible: we might just as well speak of Buddhist optimism. Conf. A. Pfungst, Ein deutscher Buddhist, 8. 48, * The illustration affords a characteristic example of this class of reliefs. These stelés have been taken to be conventional representations of the fronts of cells or small shrines. This may be so; but they seem to have been employed decoratively as pedi- ments of a sort. The lower scene in fig. 84 presents Buddha addressing a kneeling figure with two attendants. On Buddha’s right is Sakra with the vajra and behind him a figure in reverential attitude, while above are four Devas throwing down flowers. The middle is occupied by Buddha teaching, seated under a square canopy—an unusual form,—with two attendants,—perhaps Devas,—and worshipped by three figures on each side and Devas above. The third storey also represents Buddha and attendants ; and above all is the Pätra or alms-bowl worshipped by the Nagas.—J.B. f ly h r r ULLI: [ 134 DECORATIVE ELEMENTS. of this modern school may provide valuable material for the ex- planation of the old Gändhära reliefs. 85, Tae BopaIsaTTva JAMBA (Byams-pa): MAITREYA. Modern Tibetan picture from Nga-ri-Khor-sum. Original in Berlin Museum. The decorative elements which serve as framework or border to the reliefs contain a series of figured and purely orna- mental forms of very varied origin. Along with such as have been borrowed from the older Buddhist art, appear quite a number of antique motifs. It is impossible to examine these individually ; therefore only the most noteworthy will be mentioned. The giganto-machia relief published by Vincent Smith is only a repro- duction of a Greek motif, but it is also a unique example.! A giant, seen from behind, similar to the one in the Zeus group from Per- gamon, threatens with his club a naked man, who with his right hand tears at the left snake-foot of the giant. These snake-feet are 1 J, As. Soc. Beng. vol, LVILI, pt. i, p. 131f. and pl. ix, 4; Anderson, Ar. Cat. Ind, Mus. pt. i, p, 240; and Ind. Monts. p!. 102, 6. CROUCHING GARUDAS. ‘TRIBUTE BEARER.’ 35 so coarsely executed that they look almost like fish-tails. Smith was the first to give the correct explanation, and he is of opinion that the fame of the great work at Pergamon may easily have led to some small replicas, of which an example came to Gandhära. The crouching Atlases (otherwise Garudas, see above, p. 52) are ilkewise purely antique: (the Royal Museum at Berlin possesses a fine example of these). ‘They serve as supports to the beams; on the relief from Muhammad Nari shown in ill. 82; they appear, —even furnished with wings,—beneath the slender pillars which are partly of an older order. It is a favourite feature, as has been already mentioned, to set before the broad pillars and columns which border the reliefs, a figure of Buddha alone, or flanked by upright forms of worshippers,—as a curtailment of a larger relief,—or a single wor- shipping figure, and so on. Of quite special interest is the figure 86. BuppHA’S BIRTH IN THE LUMBINi GROVE. Mäyä and Prajäpati before Brahma and Sakra. From a Gändhära relief in Lahor Museum. employed as a pillar ornament in ill. 86:—the Ram-bearer, the Kriophoros. It is, perhaps, more than a strange coincidence that this Hermes representation (which, in ancient Christian art, was adopted as a symbol of the Good Shepherd) appears on a Buddhist monument and in evident reference to the founder of Buddhism. Smith’s attention has been chiefly drawn to the contact that has taken place with Christian art. If one compares with the Ram- bearer the statue of the Good Shepherd in the Christian Museum of the Lateran (conf. Spencer Northcote, Roma Sotteranea, p. 299), 136 TRIBUTE BEARERS. WORLD PROTECTORS. one cannot fail to remark a certain resemblance. The clothing is the same, and among the Gändhära sculptures known to me it no- where else appears. What the figure carries, however, cannot be quite made out. We may perhaps derive a hint from a sculpture in the Lahor Museum of a man pouring out what may be meant to represent money at the feet of a seated figure, as described by Dr. J. Burgess (Four. Ind. Art and In. vol. VIII, pl. 14, 3, and p. 37; or sep. ed. plö12, 3, and p 35), It is the so-called “tribute bearer” of the late antique art, so often appearing on ivory diptychs, which we must so generally draw upon as important parallels for the explication of our Gän- anara- sculptures. ' At Ajanta also the ‘tribute bearer” is employed decoratively (ill. 87). The representation of the tribute-bearers brings us to the so-called world-protectors. In Bauddha mythology, the mountain Meru, in the centre of the universe, is guarded by four “heroic like” kings of the demons. These are :—Kubera, Kuvera, or Vaisrävana, also called Dhanada, Dhanapati, Yaksha-raja, &c., the Hindü Plutus or god of wealth; he is regent of the north, and his attri- butesare—a pike with a flag,and a rat or mungoose that vomits jewels ; his colour yellow ——Virüdhaka, the ruler of the south and chief of the Kumbhazdas, his attributes being a helmet of the skin of an elephant’s head and a long sword; his colour is green —— Virüpäksha, the red king of the west and ruler of the Nagas, whose attributes are a jewel and snake; and Dhrvtardsh¢ra, the white guardian of the east and ruler of the Gandharvas, whose attribute is a mandoline.? In the Lahor Museum is a sculpture, referred to above, which perhaps represents Kubera (Four. /nd. Art, &c. vol. VIII, pl. 14, 3, and p. 37). It presents a king sitting on a throne, wearing a richly ornamented turban; beside him is a smaller figure—a Yaksha. Further, at his feet is the tribute-bearer, who is emptying out a bag 87. REPRESENTATION OF ““TRIBUTE-BEARERS,” from Ajanta. 1 Conf. Duruy-Hertzberg, Gesch. d. römischen Kaiserreichs, Bd. V,8.409. So far as the correlation between Christian and Indian art is concerned, I can only indicate some of the modes in which the Indian may have influenced the Christian: first of all, the “folded hands” already noticed by Curtius (Archüol. Zeit. N.F. Bd. VIII, Ss.90ff.) and the Indian anjali must be mentioned; the lions of St. Barlaam, Buddha’s simkd- sana; St. John’s cup with the snake, the alms-bowl with the Näga in Buddha’s hand,— are matters I can only mention in passing. 2 In China these Chaturmahäräjas, or four great kings, are placed as guardians at the temple gates. In Japan they are respectively,—Bishamon, holding a club in his right hand and a chaitya-shaped casket in his left, with his feet on two demons; Zöchö-tennö, seated on a dragon, and holding a scroll and brush; Kémoku, holding a vajra with three points, and sitting on a demon; and Ji-koku, also seated on a demon.—J.B. KUBERA. LOKAPÄLAS. 187 of gold. This sack with the gold rolling out, is replaced, in modern pictures, by the rat, or rather ichneumon or mungoose (Sansk. nakula; Hind. ne- vala; Vib. neu-le). The reason for this we know not.! Ku- bera is by far the most prominent of the Lokapälas: in Japan he is placed among the seven deities of fortune. Even in the Asoka period he is repre- sented,and at Barä- hat he is named in the epigraph to a statue on a gate- pillar, as a guard- ian Yaksha. (Cun- ningham, Bharhut, plese: Another sculpture, represented by Bur- gess, has also been identified as a Lo- kapäla (z6.P1.13,fig. 1, and pp. 31, 37). It is in the British Museum and is about 18 inches in height, but some- what damaged. The principal figure wearsarichlyjewel- led turban after the Räjpüt style, and holds a pike in his aa left hand; the right 88. THE SO-CALLED INDO-SKYTHIAN KING. hand is gone. His From a cast in the 8. Kensington Museum and in the right foot rests on Mus. f. Völkerkunde, Berlin. the regal footstool, and a small figure stands by each knee. On the base one attendant, ‘If the Gallic divinity represented by Duruy-Hertzberg, Gesch. des römischen Kaiserreiches, Bd. I, 8.148, is to be depended upon, we have the same motif before us. The god sits between Hermes and Apollo, with legs crossed in Indian fashion ; from a sack he shakes out what appear to be beech nuts before a couple of stags; on the gable above him isa rat! Conf. the explanation of A. Foucher, Rev. de l’ Hist d. Rel, tome XXX, p. 366f.; and see Globus, 18 Mar. 1899, Ss. 169ff. 138 ROYAL PORTRAITS. VIRUDHAKA. in the middle, sits on an animal; another, on the left, presents some offering ; to the right, one addresses the figure in the middle; and a female kneels behind in a precatory attitude. With this we may compare a figure at Lahor(ill.88), which is usually described as an Indo-Skythian king. Two things here are of special in- terest :—ı. The little attend- ant figures which surround the chief one. This. 15% peculiarity of the declining antique, which represents the portraits of emperors as larger than the surrounding soldiers, servants, and tribute-bearers; 2. The portrait-like character of the heads of the figures described. Could actual kings have been represented as 89 REPRESENTATION 1P ne : jPRESENTATION OF P‘AGS-SKYES-PO, Ce Viradhaka.l If it is probable that we have here a figure of Kubera, then it is manifestly useless to seek to identify the others. Only Virüdhaka, king of the south, is re- markable because of his attribute, wearing, as above pointed out, the skin of an elephant’s head over his scalp (ill. 89). In this, moreover, he has a very remarkable Hellenic counterpart in Demetrios, son of Euthydemos I, who is repre- sented on his coins? with just such a head- covering,—a distinction possibly referring back 90. Corn or DEME- +4 the heroic deeds attributed to Alexander the TRIOS, son of Eu- : thydemos.* Great (ill. go). Miscellaneous Sculptures. Before passing from these reliefs a few other sculptures from Gandhära may be here noticed. The two illustrations 7 and 40 are of sculptures from Swat and evidently have belonged to the same monu- 1 From an original Pekin Lamaist miniature on silk in the Berlin Museum für Völk- . erkunde. Conf. Originalmitteilungen aus dem Kgl. Mus. f. Völkerk. Ba. V, 8. 110. 2 Coins play an important part in the development of the north Buddhist types. Notice, for example, the derivation of the Siva type from the ancient Poseidon (conf. Goblet d’Alviella, Ce que UV Inde doit a la Gréce, p. 30; and P. Gardner, Catalogue Ind. Coins : Greek, &e., Kings, pl. v, 1); the same type meets us in the bronze from Kho- ten in Vostochnyja Zametki, p. 364, pl. xi,6. The victorious emperor represented in ill. 52 is likewise a coin-type; the Sarasvati type in ill. 56 also appears on Gupta coins (V.A. Smith). Conf. Globus, 18 Mar. 1899, Ss. 169ff. 3 Conf. P. Gardner, Cat. of Ind. Coins, 1886, pl. ii, 9-12. SCENES RELATING TO GAUTAMA’S BIRTH. 139 ment and to the same frieze or dado. The Corinthian pillars sunk into the dividing spaces at the ends of the panels are identical. The individualization of the faces is particularly marked. In fig. 7 the central figure is a royal personage seated upon a throne with a very antique style of back. Overhead is a large canopy hung with tassels; below is a footstool; and at each end of the throne stand chaurt bearers,—the face of one of them being destroyed. In front, at each side are two persons, seated on what seem to be cushioned stools carved with considerable care. Each holds a round bottle or vessel with his left hand; and the one on the king’s left, who is the older, raises his hand in addressing him. This scene naturally sug- gests the story of the Brahmaza explaining to Suddhodana the dream of Maya previous to the birth of Gautama, or perhaps the omens after his birth.! Ill. 40 represents separately the second part of the scene in ill. 64, or the seven steps (saptapaddnt) taken by the new-born Bodhi- sattva. Here the gods only are represented as present. Satakratu or Sakka, the legend says, had dispersed the attendants by a storm of wind and rain; and here he stands on the infant Gautama’s left, clad much as a Brahmaza, with a high turban and holding the vajra? in his right hand. Brahma, bearded, with his hair in a jatdé and with the kamanda/u or ascetic’s water vessel, stands on his right. Other Devas appear be- hind, and a canopy is held over the infant, who alone has the nimbus. In the relief, fig. 64, the infant Buddha is represented pointing with the right hand up to heaven and with the left to the earth, in sign of taking possession of the world. This is the legendary attitude still pre- served in China and Japan.® Connected with the scenes from the infancy of Gautama we might expect the incident of the visit of the ascetic or Rishi Asita to Suddhodana; and among the wall-paintings at Ajaz¢a was one on the right side of Cave XVI which was long pointed out as representing the old hermit* holding the child in his hands (ill. gr). | Unfortunately, this and neighbour- ! Rhys Davids, Buddh. Birth Stories, p,63; Bigandet, Leg. of Gautama, vol. I, pp- 29f.; Beal, Fo-sho-hing-tsan-king, in Sac. Bks, East, vol. XIX, p. 8. 2 In these Gändhära sculptures the vajra is not forked at the ends, as is usual in Nepal, Tibet, &c. The vajra with single-pointed ends is still in use in Japan, and known as the dö-kö, as distinguished from the san-kö—with three prongs, and the go-kö—having five points. > See a bronze figure of Tanjé Shaka (the infant Sakya) in the Musée Guimet.— Petit Guide ill. (1897) pp. 196,198, In Tibet called dha ’bebs, “the god who came down.’ * Burgess, Notes on Bauddha Rock Temples at Ajanta, p.60; Rock Temples, p. 308. Conf. J. Muir in /nd. Ant. vol. VIL, pp. 232f.; Beal, Rom. Leg. of Buddha, pp. 56f.; Griffiths. Paintings of Ajantd, vol. I, pl.45; and Mrs. Speir’s Life in Anc. India, pp. 248-257. With this picture compare the sculpture of Silenus and the infant Bacchus, in the Louvre Museum = Seemann, Die Götter und Heroen, p. 187. Ajanta wall-painting in Cave XVI. 140 INFANCY SCENE. ASCETIC BRAHMANA. ing scenes were ruined by natives about the time Mr. Griffiths was copying these paintings. Still another of the infancy stories is given on the lower part of the panel figured in ill.g2. This may be compared with a small relief, about 8 inches by 4, in the British Museum, probably from Sikri,! which represents the child taken to the Vima- lavyüha garden to be decked with the royal jewellery, of which event we have so detailed an account in the ninth chap- ter of the ZalıtaVistara: “All the gems on his person were lost as the ‘glow-worm’s spark in the light of day.’’* Two at- tendants here pour water on his head to bathe him: this service is ascribed to the gods immediately after his birth. Two nurses hold him or put on the ornaments; and two Devas behind them pay reverence with joined hands. Above this is another compartment re- presenting two bare-headed figures, the front one with nimbus and krobylos—almost certainly Buddha,—meeting four others wearing turbans, differently dressed and perhaps bearing presents,—the first of whom Buddha converses with. For comparison with the figures 67 and 68,—the latter in the Berlin Museum—we may here add a representation of a remarkable relief from Swat (ill. 93). It presents Buddha addressing an ascetic Brahmaza, sitting in his pänsäla or leaf hut, while behind the former stands Sakka as his protecting genius, in his usual scanty clothing and abundant hair, clasping his mace or vajra in his right hand. The meeting here might suggest that with Gaya Kasyapa; but the absence of any indication of what neighbouring reliefs may have represented prevents any certain identification. Possibly this is from the same place as fig. 40. In the Indian Museum at Calcutta is a fine relief from the Loriyän Tangai stüpa. The subject is the visit of Indra to Säkya Simha at 92. BATHING THE INFANT GAUTAMA, &c. From a photograph of a relief from Swat. 1 Jour. I. Art and Ind. vol. VIII, pp. 35, 76, and pl. 10, fig, 2. 2 Foucaux, Le Lal. Vist. pp. 110f.; and Beal, Romantic Legend, pp. 64-66. SAKKAS VISIT TO BUDDHA AT INDRASAILA. I4! the Indrasaila hill (ill. 94). It is on a slab 3 feet 10 inches high by 2 feet 8 inches wide, and represents the scene in a much more de- veloped form than as it appears elsewhere, in an archaic style,-—on an 93. BUDDHA AND AscEeTIc BRAHMANA. Relief from Swit; from a photograph. inscribed fragment from Barähat, on the north gateway at Säncht, at Gaya, and in another sculpture, in the Calcutta Museum, from Mathurä.! A comparison of these versions is very instructive as helping us to trace the influence of the original Hindu conceptions on the Gändhära art, which took over the models and modified them according to a higher artistic standard. The story of Indra desiring to reverence Buddha at Indrasaila hill is well known,? and the Barähat sculpture is labelled as “Indasalaguha.” The Swat sculpture represents the visit of Sakra and his retinue, with the Gandharva harper Pafichasikha, to the Buddha whilst he was living in the Indrasailaguhä—a cave near Buddha-Gayä. The entrance of the cave is surrounded by flames to represent the glory of the Teacher “replendent with a halo of many colours, proceed- ing to a fathom’s length all round his person.” Above and below, ! The Loriyän Tangai sculpture has been noticed, along with the others, by Dr. Th. Bloch in the Proc. Ay S. Beng. (1898), pp. 186f. See also Cunningham, Bharhut, pl. xxviii, 4, and p. 88; Mahäbodhi, pl. vili, 6; Fergusson, 7. and Ser. Wor. pl. xxix, 1, and p. 138; Ind. Monts. pl.60, 1; and Anderson, Arch. Coll. Ind. Mus, pt.i, p.182; S. Hardy, Man. Budh. pp. 298f. ? Beal, Si-yu-ki. vol. II, p.180; Trav. of Fah-hian, p.110; Foe-koue-ki, pp. 262-3 ; S, Hardy, Man, Budh. pp. 298f.; conf. Rhys Davids, Buddh, Birth Stories, p. 125. 142 SAKKA AT INDRASAILA. DIPANKARA. the birds, beasts, and trees indicate the isolation of the place. Indra appears as a royal personage on the right, doing reverence to the ascetic, with his parasol-bearer close behind, and the Devas of his train beyond on both sides. His peculiar crown or headdress 94. BUDDHA VISITED BY SAKRA AT THE INDRASAILA CAVE. A sculpture from Loriyän Tangai in the Calcutta Museum. is very similar to what we find also in the Mathurä sculpture. The figure of the Gandharva musician, on the other side, has been much damaged by the fracture of the stone, but his harp is still visible. This sculpture may well be ascribed to the best period of Gändhära art. : Among the Jataka representations, perhaps the favourite is that of Sumedha or Megha, who lived in the age of Dipankara Buddha, DIPANKARA JATAKA. BUDDHA AT BANARAS. 143 the twenty-fourth predecessor of Gautama. The legend tells how Megha, the disciple of Ratna (z.e. of Maitreya Bodhisattva in a previous birth), obtains from Bhadra, a N some stalks of the Utpala flower or Er Hi TI blue lotus, she has secured to present ‘os to Dipankara; these he throws into the air over the Bud- dha’s head, andthen places his deer-skin covering in a mud- dy place, unrolling his long hair for Dipankara to pass over, and so obtains his wish—that in a future age he shall be Sakya Muni, andinintermediate } births Bhadrä shall be his wife. Megha \ then ascended into | the air and did re- (|) verence to Buddha. Tall “Ie ‘i Br AIR: In two sculptures, ” ‘i iil Rt li Ai Mh one in the British rer a Museum (17 inches Aira a i by 16) and the other x Be ne se most of the details. Arch. Sur. West. Ind. vol. IV, p. 66. In the first, Megha or Sumedha is represented a second time, on a plaque in the air, worshipping the Buddha. Among the Mahäyäna sculptures in the Kazheri caves also, we find the same scene represented (ill. 95),—Bhadra with her Z/otä and flowers; Sumedha throwing his flowers up, which remain in the air over Dipankara; and then pro- strating himself with his jatä unrolled at the feet of the Buddha.! One of the favourite subjects of Buddhist art was the first sermon in the Deer-park (Mrigadäva) at Isipatana in the vicinity of Banaras.” “To listen to the first proclaiming of the law, evening— 1 Conf. Arch. Sur. W. Ind. vol. IV, p. 66. For the story see J. R. As. Soc. vol. VI (1873), pp. 385ff. The southern version is given by Rhys Davids, Bud. Birth Stories, pp. 8-28, where the future Buddha is called Sumedha. For other examples, in the Calcutta and Lahor Museums, see Ind. Monts. pll. 101, 114 (6), 140, and 147; Jour. Ind. Art, &e.. vol, VIII, pl. 11, figs. 1, 2, and p. 36. 2 The four sacred places to which pilgrimages were to be made by pious Buddhists were.—the scene of Buddha’s birth or the Lumbini garden ; the place of his enlighten- ment or the Vajräsana at Buddha-Gayä; the place where he first preached his Dharma 144 BUDDHA'S SERMON AT ISIPATANA. like a lovely female—came; the various beings in the world all assembled, that they might receive the ambrosia and nectar of Nirvana.” Then ‘‘ Buddha opened his mouth and preached the 96. THE FIRST SERMON AT BANARAS. A relief from Swat, in the Indian Museum, Calcutta. Dharmachakra Sitra,’ and the “oldest of the five ascetics, Kaundinya, entered the first path, as did an asankhya of Devas, &c.’ The illustration fig. 96, is on a relief from Swät, on a panel measuring 27 inches wide by 16 in height. In this large group at Isipatana; and the place, near Kusinagara, where he passed away “in that utter passing away which leaves nothing whatever behind.” Hence these four scenes are naturally among the most frequent subjects of representation in the sculptures. Conf. Rhys Davids, Buddhist Suttas, in Sac, Bks. of the East, vol. XI, pp. 90, 155, BUDDHA’S FIRST SERMON. 145 some faces are injured as well as the rich floral cornice, but the scene is, as a whole, animated and artistic. We have here the five ascetics seated listening to Buddha; the deer below his seat indi- cate the place; the pillar between them supports the Zrisula and wheel representative of the religious law (dharma); and behind appear the representatives of the Devas, some throwing down flowers on the Teacher. On his left we cannot fail to recognise 97. WASHING THE MASTER’S FEET. A Gändhära relief in Lahor Museum. his constant attendant Sakra with a large carefully moulded head, distinguished by the beard and moustache. The story relates that when Siddhärtha arrived at Isipatana the 146 BUDDHA'S ALMS-BOWL. five ascetics who resided there “were compelled to come before him and worship. They afterwards washed his feet, and enquired familiarly about his health ; but Gautama informed them that they must not address him as an equal: he was now a supreme Buddha.” The somewhat inferior relief, ill. 97, apparently repre- sents this part of the story, or some similar scene. The next illustration (fig. 98) may naturally be supposed to re- present the sequel of the attainment of supreme knowledge (dodA!). The first food offered him after his temptation was by two mer- chants and consisted of honey and wheat. But Gautama reflecting 98. SUPPOSED PRESENTATION OF BUDDHA’S PATRA. A Gändhära sculpture in Lahor Museum. that he must have an alms-bowl (fdtra), the four Mahäräjas each brought one of gold, which he refused ; then they brought silver, emerald and ruby dishes, which were also refused; lastly, each brought an earthenware bowl, and Buddha “causing them to unite in one (lest there should be jealousy), accepted the one from all.” The legend of the pétra is a long one: it is now said to be kept in Sagara’s palace at the bottom of the sea, but on the advent of Maitreya, it will divide into the original four, each of which is to be guarded by a Maharaja, as it is the palladium of Buddhism. One other sculpture may be referred to, as of quite remarkable character among these reliefs. It is on a small slab in the British Museum, about 16 inches long by 6} high (see Four. /ndian Art THE MAHAYANA SCHOOL. PU-TAI HO-;SHANG. 147 and Industry, vol. VIII, pl. 17, fig. ı). With a quasi-Corinthian pillar at the right end, it represents six men, carved with unusual life, bareheaded, with beards and moustaches, very muscular, and with boots or thick socks; but what serves as clothing reminds us of the Roman military tunica or kilt, growing down from their waists, as if parts of themselves. Each carries a spade or shovel over his left shoulder, except the left one who leans on his; and the second from the right carries some round object (a skull ?) in his right hand. Nothing of Indian origin resembles this unique relief.—J.B. A. Foucher has remarked (Rev. de /' Hist. des Relig. tome XXX, P- 359) that I have failed to point out in my account of the Gändhära sculptures, that the entire development of this period of art belongs to the Mahayana school. I had, however, taken in hand to treat the art forms independently of, and uninfluenced by the religious and theoretical development, whilst I favoured the opinion that the monuments must be examined, first of all without, and uncontined by, any fixed religious system. ‘lhe forms of art, moreover, give so much of which the texts know nothing, and they can help us to nothing ; while the texts themselves only become intelligible by access to the forms. The saying that art speaks her own language is just as true in Indian archeology as in western. But it cannot be denied that just the consideration of the decisive word ‘‘ Mahä- yana” would have had certain advantages. My chief object was to demonstrate that the Gändhära period was really the mother of all later Buddhist (as weil as Brahmanical) creations in art; that a definite history might actually be established on this basis, which would also rectify the history of international influences and the modifications of the interpretations that Buddhist monuments have undergone through other religions. Now, in China, the four protectors of the world, along with the so-called “ fat-bellied Buddha,” or Ho-shang “with the sack,” repre- sent a pentad, which are so arranged in the entrance halls that the four protectors (Chaturmahäräjas) hold the four corners of the hall while Pu-tai Ho-shang sits in the middle. Ho-shang is the representative of the Mahayana system, thus it occurs that the peculiarities characterizing the old Mahäyäna art, z.e. the Gändhära school, have been applied to him. Further, it strikes one, that the figures of children, which surround Ho-shang, are the survivals of the diminutive attendants in the late antique model, and that his bare stomach, which has earned for him the European epithet of “fat-bellied,’’ goes back to the peculiar arrange- ment of the robe, as shown in our accepted Gändhära Lokapälas. The peculiarity of his dress, which, according to eastern Asiatic ideas, borders on the indecent, tended to make the figure ridiculous and gave rise to those entertaining caricatures in which the Japanese especially excel, and among which the seven gods of fortune! and ! Ho-tei (the Chinese Pu-tai, “calico bag,” Ho-shang, “priest” or “monk ”), com- monly known as Mi-l& P‘usa, was a Chinese priest under the Liäng dynasty, (A.D. 902-557), who is regarded as an incarnation of Maitreya; he is always represented as 148 ERIEZE DECORATION. PAIGNIA, even Ho-tei appear. The hemp sack of our fat monk is then per- haps the sack of our ancient “ tribute-bearer.” These last remarks are to be regarded as purely hypothetical, and merely a suggestion which may possibly contain a grain of truth about things which are so entirely puzzling. If we pause at the numerous little decorative figures from Gandhära, an aspect of late antique art is there presented to us which perhaps accompanies the types above spoken of, the Pygmies,—the Ree Boe " little cupids —that appear with or without wings. They are represented on string courses, plinths or friezes, as boyish figures carrying garlands or playing between garlands, climbing, wrestling, or performing on (Indian ?) musical instruments. In the inter- EN vening portions the old lotus-flowers, From Loriyän Tangai, which remind one of palms, are again introduced ; or the intervals are filled in with symbols, animals, or birds. The ancient classic garland was, it appears, quite incomprehensible to the Indian: it resolved itself into roll-ornaments resembling snakes (ill 99, 100). On the sculp- tures of the Amarävati rails these garland-bearers belong to those elements which bear evidence to the influence of the Gandhara 100. RELIEF WITH GARLAND-BEARING BOYS. From Swit. Original in Mus. f. Völkerkunde, Berlin. school. The boys at play have turned into men who, bearing huge snake-like bodies, advance in studied and graceful attitudes (ill. 101). The heads of the dragons (they are evidently intended to be placed one beside the other), which grasp the ends of the very fat and lazily resting on his sack. Edkins, Chin. Buddh. p. 143; Cat. du Mus. Guim. (1883), p. 257; J, R, As. Soc. (1898), p. 346. The seven gods of fortune are:—Ben-ten (Sarasvati), Bishamon (Vaisramana or Kubera), Dai-koku, Ho-tei, Yebis, Fuku-roku-jiu, and Jiu-ré-jin,—-an eclectic series, PEDESTAL SCULPTURES. JAMALGARHI SERS: I49 bodies in a curious way, present the antique appearance of the dragons’ heads on the chair-backs described above (conf. ill. 8). Among the pairs of dallying figures in the borders of many Gän- dhära reliefs (Four. DRA APL © CECA MON Wil, pl. 75° Tigs. 25,53) groups of gods and goddesses occur whose erotic excesses area development of the ancient nude ;— com- pare the copies in Bur- gess, Cave Temples, pl.’ x; “xl; lv, xiv: The bases and pedest- alsofstatues are largely used for decorative sculptures. These are very varied,—worship- pers before a lamp, the Nirvaza scene, figures of Buddhas and Bodhi- sattvas with attendants, &c.—and itis often hard to see what relation, if any, exists between the decorative scene and the principal image (see ill. 82). Theill, 192.rez presents one of these bases inthe Lahor Mu- seum ; the figure it sup- ported isnow unknown, but this pedestal is de- corated with sculpture that we should hardly associate with a highly ethical religious cult. It represents some Bacchanalian orgy, and might recall the appearance of some Roman sarcophagus, with its lion’s head and claws ; even the men on whose knees the women are seated look more like Romans than 1 See Jour. Ind. Art, &c., pl. 8, fig. 1; pl. 8,2; pl. 9,1; pl.13, 4 and 5; pl. 23,7; Ind. Monts, pll. 83, 86, 88, 112, 145. Men carrying a great snake roll. Fergusson, Tree and Serp. Worsh. pl. li. 101. RELIEF ON A RAIL COPING-FROM AMARAVATI!: I50 WHEEL AND TRISULA. ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS. Orientals, while the women wear the usual heavy Hindü anklets.! Again, the fronts of the steps on-the stairs leading up to stüpas or oH wW > Lo. hy Ny SE an ' EN te = SF SER NE |. x Original.in Lahor Museum. 102. PEDESTAL OF A GANDHARA SCULPTURE: AN ORGY. shrines were elabor- ately decorated with sculpturedreliefs. This at least was the case with fronts of the sixteen steps as- cending to the stüpa at Jamälgarhi, con- siderable portions of which are now in the British Museum. They vary in height from about 43 to 53 inches, and the reliefs on them seem mostly to represent Jataka scenes, among which General Cunningham identified certain epi- sodes? of the Sdma and Visvantara or WessantaraFiatakas. But others are of a more convivial char- acter. The illustra- tion 103 seems to picture “a vintage scene, in which,” as Mr. Kipling remarks,’ “boys, leopards, a scene of dalliance, Bacchus on aleopard, and the wine-press of Europe (unknown in India, but com- mon in Persia), are framed in a distinctly Byzantine arrange- ment of the grape- vine.’’ Both of these examples are evidently strongly influenced by Western ideas.—J.B, !J. L. Kipling in Jour. R. I. Br. Arch., vol, I (1894), p. 138, from which illus- trations 102 and 103 are borrowed. ? Cunningham, Rep. Arch. Sur. Ind. vol, V, pp. 199f.; Ind. Monts. pl. 151; conf. Sp. Hardy, Eastn. Monachism, p. 275; aud Man. Budh. pp. 118ff.; Beal, Fah-hian, p. 194; Jätakas, No.540; J. R. As: Soe. vol, V (1870), p. 107; Burnouf, Lotus, p. 411; Up- ham, Hist. Buddh. vol. III, pll. iv and v; Fergusson, Tree and Serp. Wor. p. 126. 3 Jour. R. I. Br. Arch. ut sup. WHEEL. ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS. I51 The wheel symbol, mentioned above pp. 68, 145, with or without the trident upon it, representing the doctrine of Buddha, belongs also to the decorative elements which the Gändhära sculptures have in common with other Indian ones. This wheel—which with two couchant gazelles beside it, has become, we may Say, a hieroglyph for the first sermon in the deer-park at Bardmast,—appears in compositions full of figures, in front of the preaching Buddha, as a presentation of the phrase: dhammachakkam pavattesi,— “he turned the wheel of the sacred doctrine.” This representation is still continued in the northern school ; in modern pictures it almost looks like a sort of monstrance or pyx. In- deed, the custom prevailing in the northern school of setting in motion a cylinder filled with printed or written prayers, instead of repeating them orally,—the so-called Ch‘os- kor: dharmachakra, “wheel of the law,’ can hardly be other than a materialized putting into practice of the old symbolical represent- ation which was quite as current in the sculptures of Peshawar, as in those of the Asoka period (conf. ill. 96). The architectural elements which are employed in the decoration of the reliefs likewise still show in part the older Perso- Indian forms (conf. ill. 81, 82) ; above them rise the terraces with round dormer-windows disposed according to the old Indian pattern, as on the reliefs of Barähat, Sänchi, &c., but with more members. Little attention has been paid to the strength of these, often very slender, pillars: the crowded bell-capitals of the older art have become thin and light ; new forms have even been given to the animal figures represented on the capital. In ill. 82 the zebu has become a kind of goat. The pillar itself, on which a double terrace rests, is placed on the backs of crouching figures with wings. It is exactly the same absurd com- bination as is found in Byzantine art, which placed pillars on bodies of animals or of winged creatures; and a like practice was long continued also in Dravidian architecture. Along with these Perso-Indian elements which still appear, partly modified,in Gandhära, we have western forms of pillars and columns. Frequently pillars of the later Corinthian type are represented on vb 'AAALATAIS VUYHANYS) V WOUA ANAOS HOVLNIA 'EOT SUO -wınosnjy IOYVY ur leurs 152 ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES. one and the same relief along with Perso-Indian zebu-pillars. This is seen in ill. 82; beside the Buddha-figure in the centre, stand the Perso-Indian, outside the Hellenic. Variations of this Corinthian order are employed, almost as on the fagades of modern buildings, merely for decorative purposes. V. Smith is right when he points out that the circumstance that these forms,—so completely different from the Perso-Indian pillars, represented beside them,—forbid us speaking of a Romo-Corinthian order in a strictly technical archi- tectural sense. The question of the nature of the architectural employment of the Indo-Corinthian pillars, however, is beyond the scope of this work. A glance at the Gändhära panels represented in this book will show that for decorative purposes and the representation of build- ings, pillars and other architectural forms of the Perso-Indian and Indian styles were employed side by side, sometimes on the same slab, with columns having Hellenic capitals and bases. Structurally the architecture of the same age may have shared in this hybrid character ; but we have not much evidence to guide us to a deter- mination ; a stüpa such as the best preserved at Ali Masjid,! for example, can supply but little aid in recovering the features of temples and structures for occupation. What we see pictured in 104. CORINTHIAN CAPITAL FROM JAMALGARHI. Fergusson, Ind. and Eastn. Archit. p. 173. the sculptures, combined with the cave architecture of about the same age, must be our chief guide. But while the question cannot here be entered upon in detail, the singularly rich capitals found at Jamälgarhi and elsewhere in the Peshawar valley can hardly be overlooked when speaking of the art of Gandhära. Numerous examples exist in the Lahor, Calcutta, and British Museums.? The capital given in ill. 104, from Jamälgarhi, measures 35 inches across 1 Conf. Simpson, Trans. R. I. Br. Arch. 1880, p. 55 and pl.; ibid, 1894, pp. 94f., &e.; Fergusson, Ind. and East. Arch. pp. 173f. 2 Ind. Monts. pll. 76-78, and 109-111; Cunningham, Ar. Sur. Ind. Rep. vol. V, pll. xlvü-l. INDO-CORINTHIAN CAPITALS. . AGE. Les on the top, the lower section being 6 inches thick, and the upper 8 inches. It will be noted that the leafage is not of the classical acanthus, but more like one of the palms similarly treated: it is an imitation with divergencies,—not a strict copy. Then on one face, both of this and of the capital given on ill. 105, as well as on others, there appears among the foliage a small figure of Buddha, standing or seated. ‘These figures have been regarded as a possible indi- cation of age. The first prominent example of this practice, in classical art, as Mr. Fergusson pointed out,! seems to be found in. the Baths of Caracalla at Rome (cir. 215 A.D.) ; but before such a feature was applied in an imperial work, it had doubtless been pre- viously used elsewhere. And, in fact, we find a Niké introduced nr 105. INDO-CORINTHIAN CAPITAL FROM LORIYAN TANGAT, Original in Ind. Mus., Calcutta. among the acanthus leaves on the Corinthian capitals of the ante of the temple of Augustus, built by Greek artists at Ancyra about A.D. 10; and another example is found on the capitals at Priene. These are of earlier date than the sculptures in Gandhära, and its use would come to the east with the other models of the Hellenic artists who executed these reliefs.? ! Ind. and East. Arch. pp. 174-8. ? Texier and Pullan, Prin. Ruins of Asia Minor, pll. xxii and xxv, reproduced in Bose, Dict. gen. de !Archeol. fig. 36; Dilettanti Soc., Antig. of Ionia, pt.1, ch. ii, pl. 14; pt. III, ch. ii, pll, 5,7; J. Durm, Die Baustile, Bd.-1, 8. 191. 154 CAPITALS. GILDING. STUPAS. The second capital (ill. 105) came from Loriyän Tangai, and is in the Calcutta Museum. The Jamalgarhf examples are usually in several pieces; this is in one block, but we have no scale from which to judge of its size. The figure of Buddha occurring on one side only of these capitals is indicative that they were used in a facade or the front of a projecting porch where the other sides were less exposed to view. All these capitals were apparently originally gilt, and some of them—as well as some of the best preserved sculptures—still show traces of gilding or of colour, so that, when entire, the effect of the whole must have been gorgeous in the extreme.! 106. Miniature STÜPA FROM LoRIYAN TANGAT. Imperfect restoration. (Calcutta). Small model stüpas were found in large abundance at Buddha- Gaya; and in the Swat valley several of a structural sort have been found, more or less disintegrated, but which might probably, with 1 Cunningham, Arch, Rep. vol. V, pp. 49 and 196; Fergusson, Ind. and East. Arch. p. 174. : MODEL STUPAS. 155 proper care, have been carefully pieced together on the spot, by some one who saw the position in which the different portions were found and knew how to combine them. As it is, in the Calcutta Museum, two restorations have been attempted with pieces, per- haps originally belonging to different examples, though all from beside the Loriyan Tangai stüpa. One of these (fig. 106) is perhaps fairly correct, except that the piece on the top does not belong to it. The height to the top of the dome is 2 feet 6 inches, and the square base is in one piece, very carefully carved. On the side shewn are two compartments : that on the spectator’s right is the return in state of the infant Gautama with his mother Mäyädevi from the Lumbinf garden.! That to the left may be a representation of the interview of the Rishi Asita Devala with Suddhodana respecting the future of the child. Another side of this base represents (1) Mäyä on her couch and the descent of the white elephant, with four Devas looking down from two balconies; and (2) the Brahmawa interpreting the dream to Suddhodana, which may be compared with another similar sculpture (ill. 7). The third side represents (1) on the right end the great renunciation in a sculpture differing but little from the one given before (fig. 53); and (2) the giving back of Kazthaka to Chhanda, in which the horse is represented as on its knees in ador- ation of Gautama: Sakra, as usual, stands with his vajra just behind him, and other five or six Devas appear on the scene. Of the fourth side only fragments have been preserved: it represented the birth and the miraculous bathing of the child. The tier forming the lowest one of the drum of the stipa contains a series of seated Buddhas. Above this, the second and third tiers have perhaps been transposed in position: the one has a chequer pattern surmounted by a modillion cornice, and the other an alter- nation of trees and small Atlantes supporting a second cornice of the same pattern. Over all is the dome carved with large leaves as a covering, and crowned by a square box-shaped capital (ga/a), which was doubtless originally surmounted by an umbrella (chhatra). The other stüpa (ill. 107) is much less satisfactorily put together from various pieces which could hardly have all belonged to the same structure. It is scarcely probable that, till very recent times, so small a gardha or dome would have been placed over so large a double pedestal; more likely the lower base belonged to another and larger chaitya, and the first tier above the dome is out of all proportion to the latter, while the one below it is as evidently out of place. The sculptured facets or shields attached to the dome, of which one is left, form a peculiarity not met with elsewhere, and seem to indicate the origin of the practice in Nepal, of placing one of the Buddhas on each of the four faces of their great chaityas.? ! Compare this with the scene represented in Arnold’s Light of Asia, ill. ed. p. 159. I owe the information respecting the other faces to Dr. Th. Bloch of the Calcutta Museum. ? Notes on Ajanta Rock-Temples, &c., p.99; Wright’s Hist. of Nepdl, pl. xi, p.174. 156 INFLUENCE OF THE GANDHARA SCHOOL. The lions or Simhas at the corners and centre of each face, too, have not been remarked except in the Swat stüpas. The excavated Loriyän Tangai stüpa itself was a hemispherical dome with scarcely any basement, but with figures projecting at regular intervals round the lower courses of the dome.—J.B. 107. MODEL STÜPA FROM LORIYÄN TANGA. Tentative restoration from various pieces. (Calcutta). The influence of the Gändhära school is very per- ceptible in later Indian art. The types which were described in Chapter I are, however, less altered than the composition. This appears most clearly in the case of the reliefs of the “rail” at Amarävati. A formal translation of compositions that have become typical certainly does not occur—though perhaps the birth-scene INFLUENCE OF THE GANDHARA SCHOOL. AMARAVATI. 157 is an exception—as has happened in the case of the modern art of the northern schools of Tibet. China, and Japan; but the con- struction of the relief itself differs from those of Barahat and Sänchi. This is occasioned primarily by the introduction into the composition of the figure of the founder of Buddhism. This figure —distinguished, however, by the Bhämandala—naturally appeared in the centre of the compositions, the other figures being arranged according to their importance, starting from the centre. The old plan of crowding together several scenes on the same slab holds good, so far as | can see. The external form of the reliefs of the Amaravatt rail (conf. ill. 8) is also noteworthy. After the Roman fashion, they are inserted almost entirely in rosettes (flat ne/umbia, blue lotus), which adorn the pillars of the enclosure—for example, the middle parts of the rail-bars. The single figures are refined, mostly over-refined developments of the older Indian art: the affected and strained attitudes of the feebly treated bodies are particularly striking; the treatment of the garments, so far as the arrangement of the draperies is concerned, shows the influences of the Gändhära sculptures, although perhaps only by an indirect transition. The austere type of the faces in Barahat—also notice- able here and there in Sänchi—has likewise disappeared: in the full, effeminate, and very pleasing faces of the sculptures of Amarä- vati the Greek influence is also very apparent. Notwithstanding, the Indian element decidedly preponderates: the foreign elements are overpowered by the Indian style, and serve only here and there as means to an end. What was said above about the character of the Indian lyric—especially as regards its strongly marked erotic features—may be repeated to a large extent about Amarävati. The compositions are loaded with a crowd of voluptuous and grotesque figures: here and there appears a figure of great beauty, which, however, is smothered by the others. In spite of this, it may be said that the best reliefs of Amarävati are also the best Indian sculptures. ze hed Bi 108. CHADDANTA ELEPHANT. From the Ajanta wall-paintings. Beal, Si-yu-ki, vol. II, p- 49, 109. GANDHARA PEDESTAL WITH BUDDHA AND BODHISATTYA. GHHFASBRATZTSERFTSIENA REPRESENTATTON- BF? BUDDFTALAND BODAISATTVA: Tne appearance of Alexander the Great in India, at the head of a powerful army gathered together from different nationalities, presented for the first time to the Indian Aryans the spectacle of a universal monarch. The idea of a universal empire, first conceived by the Achaemenides, led up to by Cyrus and organised by Darius, had become the inheritance of the Macedonian: no wonder that it found an echo in India, which, since the days of the Achemenides, had always been intimately connected with Iran. As has been mentioned above, even in Buddha’s time, the kingdom of Magadha had become the dominant power in India. This power further increased under the Maurya (Päli, Mora) dynasty, which Chandragupta had founded. The third king of the Maurya line, Asoka, afterward the patron of Buddhism, to whose influence the whole Indian peninsula was forced to submit, must have been the first who was regarded by his co-religionists as a Chakra- vartti! This word, which originally meant the possessor or ruler of a Chakravartta (Chakraväla), i.e. a district, was at that time, owing to political conditions and the formation of a religious terminology, regarded as a title and had a particular signification. The word was incorrectly divided into chakra (wheel) and varta- gatı (to turn, to set in motion), and it was explained as meaning “The king, whose wheel (z.e. chariot)? rolls over all the world.” In a previous chapter it was pointed out that, in Vedic times, the wheel played an important part as the symbol of occult power. The attributes and prerogatives of the Chakravartti, as well as his physical peculiarities, are systematically established—canonised, so 1 Conf. Rhys Davids, Buddhism, pp. 219-20. i 2 The original meaning, however, was simply ‘ Ruler of a district.’ BUDDHA AND CHAKRAVARTTI. BEAUTY-MARKS. 159 to speak In the first place, he possesses the seven jewels (Skt. sapta ratndni; Pali, satta ratanäni), 1.e. the best specimens of each kind that appear during the reign: the jewel of the wheel, of the elephant, of the war-horse, of woman, of the pearl, of the general, of the minister. The order of succession is, as Fergusson says, strange but characteristic. We cannot enter upon a detailed examination of this remarkable emblem here, but it is interesting to notice that the wheel of the Chakravarttf has become, we know not when, a mystic weapon, swung and thrown by the hand: the Hindi religion bestows it on Vishzu as his attribute, &c. More- over, the iron “quoits” of the fagirs of the Sikh religion are well known. The physical qualities of the Chakravartti are those of the so-called “great Being” (Skt. Mahäpurusha; Pali, Mahä- purisa). They consist of the thirty-two greater and eighty lesser physical characteristics or marks. But these beauty-marks the Chakravartt? has in common with Buddha. In- deed, in contradistinction to the emperor, who. ruled over the whole world, whose attribute of majesty is theoretically developed by the church, there appears the figure of a ruler of a supernatural world. This is Buddha, who, according to the legends, was born of royal race, and would have become a Chakravartt? if he had not preferred to reveal to man the true doctrines. In the old Bauddha legends (Avidürenidäna) the contrast is most clearly expressed in the finely-sketched scene where Gautama leaves his home, and an angel opens to him the locked and guarded gate. Then Mara Vasavarti, the god of passion, approaches and advises him not to leave his home and not to become a monk. ‘In seven days will the world with all its lands and their two thousand islands be thine.” The wheel of the Chakravartti is the symbol of Indian power: the wheel of Buddha is that of religion (Skt. Dharmachakra; Pali, Drammachakka). These apotheoses of king and of Buddha attained actual com- pletion in opposite ways; Buddha and his doctrine became, as we may say, recognised by the state,—an expression which is hardly appropriate, inasmuch as the intolerently exclusive tendency of west Asiatic religions is not thereby indicated—and the grateful church gave the monarch a corresponding position in her system. That the whole theory was a gradual development is undoubted ; the fact that representations of the so-called seven jewels appear first at Amarävati is a proof of this.! But, in any case, it was Asoka who gave rise to this view. The specialising of the physical characteristics of the ‘ great man” rested on the ancient art of explaining signs, and—as will appear from what follows—formed the basis of the artistic efforts. ' For example see the reliefs in Fergusson, Tr. and Serp. Wor, pl. xli, 8, xlv, 3; on the plinth of a Sizhanida Lokesvara, J. R. As. Soc. (1894), p. 54, and pl. i, ete.; Pozd- neev, Zap. geogr. Obshch. XVI, pp. 87f.; conf. also K. Kasawara, Dharmasangraha in Anecd. Ox. Ar. ser. vol. I, pt. v, p. 60, 160 SUPERNATURAL ATTRIBUTES OF BUDDHA. It has been mentioned that, even in the time of the Chinese pilgrims, there were attempts to establish authentic representations of Buddha. It may be said that the desire to have a picture of the conqueror made claims upon the Hindi artists, which were utterly at variance with their methods of conception. The rich ornament, which so often prevents us seeing that the body represented is wretchedly formed, disappeared in consequence of the legend. In- stead of the figure of a king in rich turban, with garlands of flowers, rich ear, breast, and loin ornaments, the narrow upper garment distinct in all its parts, and the comfortably-titting covering of the lower limbs,—the artist had to represent the figure of a monk un- adorned, with shaven skull, in a cowl-like garment,—but so to idealise it that it should be worthy to rank as a sacred represent- ation. The attitudes which had to be given to the figure likewise sprang from the legends: he had to be represented meditating, teaching, consoling, and entering Nirväna, z.e. dying. At any rate, these were, and remained, the fundamental types, though the canon devised a particular pose for almost every scene in Buddha’s life. Thus there originated a figure sitting— Indian fashion—with crossed legs, and hands laid flat on one another in the lap,—meditating ; the right hand falling to the ground,—calling upon the earth as witness; the right hand raised and held palm forward, while the left hangs flat by the side, or holds the folds of the garment. It is natural that-an art, like the old Indian, which had not become independent—as it was not in a position to give the necessary dignity to such unornamented figures—should bestow a super- natural character upon them by means of all sorts of accessories of an extraordinary nature. To a perfected art, which had at its disposal all the types of systematically developed schools,—perhaps the Greek of the Roman period, or, in the domain of painting, the Spanish of the seventeenth century,—this subject, the creation of an ideal portrait of an ascetic or philosopher, might have afforded material for masterpieces. But the actual capacity was childishly weak, and the ritualistic interest was the chief thing considered. An idealising response to this conception now showed itself: the great Teacher, who had entered Nirvava, became more and more god-like to his followers: the flowery epithets of the legends were inter- preted literally ; he thus became possessed of supernatural gifts. A further impulse to idealisation was given by the fact that the executive art restricted itself to youthful types. Even on the most ancient Buddhist monuments a series of popular signs have been canonised by Buddhism: we find the foot-marks with the sign of the wheel, or the well-known Svastika as symbol of Buddha (conf. above, p.72). Now the physical perfections of the great being! form a series of exactly similar distinctive marks. They vary somewhat in their order: indeed, some of the “ smaller beauty marks” are specified among the larger, and so on. 1 Conf. K, Kasawara, J. cit. pp. 53ff, THE GREATER BEAUTY-MARKsS. THE LESSER. 161 The customary order of the mahäpurusha Lakshanas or superior marks (Lalitavistara, Mahäpadhänasutta, Dharmapradipikä) is: 1, the head shows a protuberance (wshnisha) on the skull; 2, the hair is glossy black (blue) like the tail of a peacock, or like pulver- ised eye-salve, it is arranged in short curls and each curl goes off from left to right; 3, the brow is broad and smooth; 4, between the eyebrows is a little ball (Z#rnd, Pali: wnna—tuft of hair) shining like silver or snow; 5, the eyelashes are like those of a bull; 6, the eyes are brilliant black; 7, he has forty teeth of perfectly equal size; 8, they lie close to one another: 9, and are dazzling white ; 10, his voice resembles Brahmä’s; 11, he has an exquisite sense of taste (?); 12, the tongue is large and long; 13, the jaws are those of a lion; 14, the shoulders and arms are perfectly round; 15, the seven parts of the body are quite rounded and full (the palms of the hands, soles of the feet, etc.) ; 16, the space between the shoulders is filled out; 17, the skin has a tinge of gold colour; 18, the arms are so long that when he stands upright, the hands reach down to the knees; 19, the upper part of the body is that of a lion; 20, his figure is like that of the banian tree (ficus religiosa); 21, only one little hair grows from each pore; 22, these little hairs curl from above towards the right; 23, nature has concealed the marks of sex; 24, the thighs are well rounded; 25, the legs are like those of the gazelle; 26, the fingers and nails are long; 27, the heel is elongated ; 28, the instep is high; 29, his feet and hands are delicate and slender; 30, his fingers and toes have a web between; 31, under the soles of the feet appear two shining wheels with a thousand spokes ; 32, the feet are flat and stand firm.! The eighty smaller marks (anuvyanjana-lakshana) are: 1-3, his nails are round, copper-coloured, smooth; 4-6, the fingers round, beautiful (?), long; 7-8, neither veins nor bones are seen; 9, the sinews are firm; 10, the feet are alike; 11, the heel is large; 12, the lines of the hand are soft (?) ; 13-16, regular, deep, not twisted and elongated; 17, his lips are red like the fruit of the Bimba; 18, his voice is not rough; 19, he has a thin, long and copper-coloured tongue; 20, his agreeable and melodious voice resembles the sound made by an elephant or thunder; 21, he is of full strength; 22, he has long arms; 23, his limbs shine; 24-29, they are delicate and large, powerful, regular, well-knit and well-proportioned ; 30, the knee-pan is broad, big and full; 31-33, his limbs are rounded, graceful and symmetrical ; 34-35, the navel lies deep and is regular; 36-37, his behaviour is noble, causing joy everywhere; 38, he sheds abroad an unearthly light that dispels all darkness ; 39, he walks slowly, like an elephant; 40-42, he strides like a lion, like an ox, like a hansa; 43, in walking he turns to the right; 44-46, his sides are muscular, shining, straight; 47, his belly is like a bow; 41, his ‘he Sanskrit names of the Lakshanas are given in B. H. Hodgson’s Illustrations of the Lit. and Rel. of Budh. (1837), p. 129, or Essays (Lond. 1874), p.90. Conf. Burnouf, Lotus, pp. 616-17; Alabaster, Wheel of the Law, pp. 118ff. and 312f. Sp. Hardy, Man, Budh. pp. 382f.; Lalita Vistara, pp. 93f.—J.B. 162 THE LESSER BEAUTY-MARKS. PERSON OF BUDDHA. body is free of all dark spots that could disfigure it ; 49-51, the eye- teeth are round, pointed and regular; 52, the nose is prominent; 53-63, the eyes are brilliant, they are clear, with a friendly expres- sion, long and large, they are like a flower—the leaf of the blue lotus (nymphza), have beautiful even brows, which meet, are clearly marked and black; 64-67, the cheeks are full and smooth, without disfigurement, without trace of hate and anger; 68-69, his passions are perfectly bridled and have attained perfection; 70, his face and forehead express perfect harmony; 71, his head is perfectly beauti- ful; 72-79, the hair of the head is black, of the same length, well arranged, perfumed, not disordered, not dishevelled, neat, in coils ; 80, the hair forms the figures ‚Srivatsa, Svastika, Nandyävarta and Vardhamäna. Although many of these smaller beauty-marks are very difficult to describe and still more difficult to explain, it seemed necessary to specify them all, as they furnish a remarkable proof of the sys- tematizing method of the Buddhists.! In the main—so much is clear—the basis is formed on a youthful figure with the peculiarities of the Hindüs, just as they are described even in Brähmanical works: it is the type of the Indian hero. The long arms are specially strange. With the Hindüs as with the Persians, this is an old mark of noble birth. In old Persian names and cognomens, with which the Indian may be compared, this peculiarity is mani- fested; I need only recall ‘ Longimanus,’ which corresponds to an O. Persian Darghabäzu, O. Indian Dirghabahu, and to the Persian name translated by the Greeks—Megabazos (O. Indian Mahäbähu), etc. With these appear characteristics of a supernatural, and— according to our ideas—uncouth nature, which militate against an ideal conception. Thus the tuft (#rnä) between the brows must ‘have had its origin in the superstition that men whose brows run into each other are specially gifted. The representations of Buddha give the zrnd in the form of a small round protuberance over the root of the nose, which in older and more modern figures is fre- quently replaced by a pearl, and so on. The protuberance on the skull (wshnisha) is likewise an abnormal physical peculiarity, which was thought to be extraordinary and supernatural. The chief difference between ancient art and the art of the Gän- dhära period is that the figure of Buddha is evolved from foreign models. As has been pointed out, the hairsplitting philosophy of the Buddhist sects led to a highly developed detail of the charac- teristics of a Buddha.. The person of Gautama takes the form of a belief, which is commented upon in all directions. The idea of Buddha is the chief matter. The introduction of the image of Buddha makes the ancient philosophy more of a religion? If we return to the sculptures, we see before us, among the 1 The greater lakshanas are 32—=4X (2X2X2) ; the lesser 80=(1+2+3+4)X(2X2X2); and the mangalas on each foot are 108=4X(3X3X3). Is this accidental P—J.B. ? See above p. 67, note 2. THE FIGURE OF BUDDHA. 163 Gändhära remains, the complete ideal Buddha, produced under Hel- lenic influence. And here we may give attention to the introduction of a retrograde movement and see how the type has become changed and deteriorated in different lands. The attitudes required by tradition,—the most important of the physical characteristics established by superstition,—though they 110. Gautama BUDDHA From Takut-i-BAni. Height 20in. Original in Berlin Museum. remain latent, are faithfully retained in the sculptures of Gandhära. In true Greek style, the disfigurement of the bump of intelligence 164 THE FIGURE OF BUDDHA. (ushnisha) upon the skull, is concealed by a cluster of locks of hair; in many cases the closely-cut hair, which the figure should have, is replaced, incorrectly, and in contradiction to the tradition, by an abundance of locks. The Apollo type of the Alexandrine period, which was used as a basis for the Buddha-head, gives an idealization, which is in entire opposition to the possibility of the portrait of Gautama. Nowhere do we see the head shaved bare: thus the idea 111. BuppHA Torso FROM TAkHT-i-BAHI. Height 154in. Original in Berlin Museum. strikes us, that the short curls turning from left to right are only an attempt of a stage of art no longer able to represent the free falling waved hair. In translating the Apollo-ideal, two things may have DERIVATION FROM THE APOLLO IDEAL. 165 influenced the Hellenists, or whoever effected this first translation. First of all, the character of the Greek god, not only as leader of the muses, but also as a nature god (Helios): in both phases he found his counterpart. In conformity with the old Indian nature-worship Buddha’s epithets had become chiefly those of a light or sun-god ; so much so, indeed, that in Europe it has been attempted to 112. GAUTAMA ON THE PapMASANA, From Loriyan Tangai. deny his historic existence, and to make of him an old sun-god! His appearance as teacher, physician of souls and healer, justified the other side. It must not be forgotten, either, that the district in which the translation took place, before the introduction of Bud- dhism, belonged to the fire-worship of Zarathushtra, which must 166 THE DOUBLE TENDENCY: IDEALISTIC AND REALISTIC. have become the state religion, and which united the Indian pro- vinces with the Baktrian kingdom. It is known, and has alread been mentioned, that wherever the Greeks came upon the light and sun-gods of the barbarians, Apollo types were there evoked. The sculptures of the Gändhära convents have had a lengthy de- velopment, which cannot, indeed, as yet be exactly determined. But this is very apparent in the Buddha types, that along with an idealistictendency which is certainly the older, as it pre- serves the Greek types, is found a realistic and clearly more modern one. But ın both cases there are, if we may use the expression, Indian degeneracies. To the idealistic tendency belong Buddha-heads with youthful, Apollonic features, with gently smiling mouth, half-shut eyes with soft, full, fleshy parts, finely moulded nose, and sharply defined, luxuriant and elegantly arranged hair (conf. ill. 111). One, the finest, which the Berlin Museum possesses (ill. 110), even shows the coquettish locks before the ear, that were the fashion at Athens in the time of the, Diadochs—successors of Alexander, and which, if I am not mistaken, are to be found on 113. BUDDHA HEAD FROM la KHT-i-BAHi. ! B 5 ent Bink Original in Berlin Museum. ae UDDHA HEAD FROM TAKHT-i-BAHi, Indian type.. Original in Berlin Museum. the Apollo Musagetes. With these examples we may also compare ill. 112,! a fine relief from Swat. It represents the Buddha, with a youthful face, the eyes half closed, a slight smile about the mouth, the ärnd unmarked, and the hair wavy and dressed in the style of the other Gändhära reliefs with the robe over both shoulders. The 1 Jour. Ind. Art and Indust. vol. VIII, p. 83. THE IDEALISTIC TYPE. 167 sculpture represents the Jina upon the padmdsana or lotus-seat supported, as usual, by two small worshipping figures. Along with the idealistic type of purely Hellenic formation, are found heads of Indian race, executed in the way prescribed. On the one shown in ill. 114 the Indian element is distinct: the hair rough and treated in the orthodox way. A little later there follows the type of the Buddha-head shown in the relief represented in ill. 82. In the main it preserves the old idealistic forms, but they are preserved, as it were, artificially, and are deprived of all indi- viduality and independence: a picture of still beauty absorbed in itself, which has an effeminate and unmanly effect! The northern school has preserved this type well: it is shown in astonishin purity in the Buddha-heads of Börö Budur (conf. ill. 115). The hair ’ 115. Heap OF A BUDDHA FROM BöRö BUDUr. Original in Berlin Museum. is luxuriant as in ill. 82, and arranged in small locks as the canon requires. But the elongated ear-lobes are never missing, not even in the best heads. It appears that even this peculiarity, which shows so decidedly the laying aside of the royal ornaments, also arises from attempts made by Hindi artists in connection with the 1<«Mhe statue of Buddha should measure from the top of the wshnisha to the sole 125 fingers,” so also the length of the outstretched arms “ measures 125 fingers.” —A.G. 168 INDIAN DEGENERATION IN TYPE. Buddha type, before the Gändhära sculptors idealized it. For com- parison another example (fig. 116) may also be here introduced. It _ was found among some ancient remains on the west bank of the Indus, just outside the Hazara district, and thus to the east of the other find-spots of such sculp- tures. Unfortunately it has been much injured by hewing off the arms and legs, and what remains is only about 2 feet in height. The hands are in an unusual position for a standing figure of the Buddha, but the face is par- ticularly striking and of excellent workmanship.! On the sculptures of the south- ern school, monumental as well as miniature, the treatment of the hair and of the ears degenerates into the unnatural inconsequence of its prolific reproduction, which was considered as a specially meritorious act. The naturalistic tendency, likewise, working with purely antique materials, evidently did not appeal much to the Indian taste. It shows an _ austere, rather cold, Hindü face with coarse moustache (conf. ill. 117). In Indian sculpture no Buddha- head is seen with a moustache. ; But the "old. Chinese - (and SS jJapano-Korean) sculptures al- 116. BUDDHA STATUE. ways give Buddha a moustache, Original in Fitzwilliam Mus., Cambridge. although a very artificial-looking one, with some beard on the chin. This certainly corresponds with examples of the Gändhära school, but how it comes about we do not know. A positive testimony is, however, at our command in Chinese sources. This is due to communications for which we have to thank Hirth,’ relative to the artist Wei-chi-I-söng of Khotan, who flourished at the Imperial court of Chang-an-fu (7th century), 1 Jour. Ind. Art, §c., vol. VIII, p. 85. ? Ueber fremde Einflüsse die chines. Kunst, Ss.46f. “ But as to how that character, foreign to Chinese, but, according to Gonse, resembling Indian taste, came into ancient Korean art, I can give no better explanation than that afforded by an allusion to the origin of the artist who served as an example to the Buddhist painters, the Central Asian Wei-chi-I-söng. The Indian traits that we notice between the 7th and 12th INDO-BAKTRIAN ART SCHOOL IN CHINA. 169 and upon whose influence the Indo-Baktrian elements of the eastern Asiatic art must be based. One of the prin- ciples which are to be kept in mind in the further ex- amination of Buddhist iconography is—that the common forms of the dif- ferent countries must be tabulated with reference to the prototypes in Gan- dhara. The moustache appears in Gandhära at times in the idealistic type. The Buddha figure from Swat district, represented in ill. 119, shows in the face powerful and full out- lines, with fine features and smooth hair: the moustache -is only indi- cated by some _ lightly- marked lines behind the corners of the mouth. The treatment of drapery inthe Buddha figures of the Gändhära monasteries is almost en- tirely Grecian. The robe, in upright figures, is so laid round the body that it reaches to the ankles, covering both shoulders and the body. In the finer ancient pieces and good replicas (conf. ill. 117, 122) the robe is so disposed as to show the contour of the body, the folds follow- ing the lines of the limbs in a natural and uncon- strained way. The robe is laid round the neck, | and the folds marked by 117. Gautama BuppHA. Naturalistic type, lines that are usually ho]- with moustaches; from Swat. Height 444 in. lowed. ou (conf, ll 122). Original in Berlin Museum. centuries must have been introduced by way of India and Khotan, the home of I-söng, with its art-loving princely court, and from thence by Chang-an-fu, the imperial city of the 7th century, and Korea and Japan.” 170 GREEK TREATMENT OF DRAPERY PERSISTENT. The arrangement of the drapery appears to be flatter in the later reliefs, —those which represent Buddha with moustaches. In the 118, GAUTAMA BUDDHA. Takht-i-Bahi. Height 31in. Original in Berlin "Museum. northern school, and even in China and Japan, this way of arranging the drapery seems to have been preserved with wonderful tenacity. The an- cient Chinese and Japanese Buddha- „figures have preserved the ‘draping’ of the Gändhära figures in a peculiar way. Ill. 120 shows a small modern miniature of a Buddha from Japan, painted on silk. The statue of the sitting Buddha from Takht-i-Bähi, in ill. 110, may be compared with this. The miniature makes no at- tempt at shading, but the ar- rangement of the folds is rendered clearly enough by the black outlines drawn in. The old drapery is still better preserved in the standing figures. Modern paintings also show it distinctly, as in ill. 124, from Japan—from a large pic- ture which represents the Para- dise (Sukhävati) of Amitäbha.! It has been mentioned above, that in the earlier Gändhära works the folds of the drapery are sharp and angular, some- times even projecting at the edges. The Chinese wooden figure of a Buddha in ill. 125 shows a remarkable degeneracy from this thoroughly Greek idea. This wooden figure is, however, more interesting in respect that it is certainly a replica of a copy, which has been preserved in China and is traced back, according to the Chinese tradition, to Udayana’s sandalwood figure of the Master.? The first Indian kings who are ! Compare with this pieture the beautiful legend in Schott’s Ueber den Buddhismus in China und Hochasien, Berl. Acad. 1846, Ss. 55ff. Also Yule, Zhe Book of Sir Marco Polo, vol. I, pp. 406ff. 2 Conf. 8S. Beal, Travels of Fah-hian, p.210 (front of cover), and Hofmann, Buddha- pantheon von Nippon, 8.150, fig. 559, pl. xxxvilid, and as illustration, — Führer des Kgl. LEGENDARY EXPLANATION OF FOREIGN FORMS. 171 mentioned as having possessed statues of Gautama were: Prasena- jit of Kosala, who had seen the Master, and Udayana of Kausambi, at whose command the famous sandalwood figure was prepared by a master who had been sent to heaven,—which figure doubtless is 119, SEATED GAUTAMA BUDDHA WITH MOUSTACHES. From Swat; height 28% inches. The great aureole that was behind the head is almost entirely broken off. Original in Berlin Museum. connected with the Gändhära sculptures. We are indebted to Fäh-hian for the account of Prasenajit: to Hiuen Thsang for that of Udayana. Whether by the picture, which Prasenajit is said to have possessed, another type of the Buddhist ideal is intended is naturally beyond our knowledge. On the Buddha figure, shown in ill. 125, which goes back to Udayana’s type of Buddha, the edges of the folds stand out in imitation of the ancient forms: the raised lines do not merge into one another, and they are modelled into grotesque ornaments at the sides, while the edges of the drapery, Museums f. Völkerkunde,7 Aufl. (1898),8.192. The reflection in the water: G, Huth, Geschichte des Buddhismus in der Mongolei, Bd. II (trans.) 8.409. 172 BUDDHA DRAPED IN TWO WAYS. falling from the arms, have received a quite antique arrangement. How strangely the Asiatics touched upon this representation is proved by the explanatory legends which a Tibetan historian quotes regarding the Buddha figure of Udayana. He relates how Buddha— 120. FIGURE OF A BUDDHA. From a modern Japanese representation, prevalent in the Chinese religions. Painted on silk. Berlin Museum. in order to lighten the work of the artists, who were blinded by his glory—was tok acs in the water. ‘The de reproduced this re- flection and thus the w aving lines of the robe are accounted for. It is noted above that in these sculptures, the figure of the Buddha is draped in two ways,—with the right shoulder and arm bare, or with the robe drawn c losely round the neck and over both shoulders, When he is represented as seated either on the ROA lotus throne (as in a 121, and Four. Ind. Art, &c., vol. VEL, pl. 7, fig. 1, and pl.8, figs. 1, 2),! or on the vajräsana in the bhümisparsa- mudrd, as in ill 49, the first mode seems to be the more usual; this is also frequent in the case of standing figures (see ill. 95), and even in some representations of the nırvana Gill. 75, 70). “But it occurs in nearly all groups of Buddhist sculptures and paintings in other parts of India.” The vesture fitting closely round the neck, on the 1 Arch. Sur. S. Ind.—Amardvati, p. 12. ? See Ind. Monts. pll. 98, and 102, fig.1; Amardvati, ws., (UR Seay Herrn: RR Vee le HOLE I Rex, 3: xXXVll, i 2; xxxviil,5; xxxix, 2; xli, 6; xliii,5 and 9; li, 1 and 2 2; and lv, 5; Cave Temples, pll. xxxi; xxxv, 1; li, and lvi; Arch. Sur. W. Ind. vol. ILI, pl. xlii; vol. LV, pll. xxvii, xxx, and xli, 1; vol, bh pl. xviii, 4; Griffiths, Ajanta Paintings, pli, 15, 24, 38, 39, 43, 51, 54, 61, 89, 91 and 151; &e. TYPE WITH UNCOVERED SHOULDER IN GANDHARA. 173 other hand, is distinctly the more prevalent among the Gändhära sculptures and is frequently copied elsewhere. Whether the rise of Buddhist iconography in the colder climate of Gandhära and 121. BUDDHA AND BODHISATTVAS. 15 inches broad. From Loriyän Tangai. Calcutta Museum. under foreign influence favoured the more warmly draped forms, may deserve consideration; but the instances of both styles of dress are numerous.! The Buddha representations found in the stone enclosure of 1 Dr. Th. Bloch, J. As. S. Beng. vol. LVII. pt. i, p. 283, states that, “ wherever we find a Buddhist statue which has the right shoulder bare, this is to be taken as a sign that the statue represents, not a Buddha, but a Bodhisattva.” In presence of the examples cited, and the remarks which follow, this conclusion cannot be supported,— ’ 174 GANDHARA TYPE WITH BARE RIGHT SHOULDER. Amarävati, are the principal Indian sculptures that follow the NA N 122. GAUTAMA BUDDHA FROM TAKHT-i-BÄHi. Height 333 inches. Original in Berlin Museum. Gändhära style (conf. ill. 123). Some Buddha Statues = Loune ar Mar thurä have also the robe laid over both shoulders, - and the folds executed on the dress point to the Gändhära sculptures as models. The Buddha image in the middle of the relief from Muhammad Nari in ill. 82 is particularly remarkable, as in more than one respect present- ing highly interesting features. As before mentioned, the head, especially in the treat- ment of the hair, is Indian; but in respect of the drapery the uncovered shoulder is striking. These two particulars belong ex- clusively to the Buddha- images of the southern school. The same char- acter, however, is also found in the more recent Buddha figures from Bengal and Nepal (Tä- ranäthä’s Nepäl school) and inthat of modern Tibet, ‘which is de- pendent upon it. Evi- dently it is, the -öld orthodox type! which becomes apparent here. The figures at Amara- vati (ill. 123) and Ma- thurä, which were ın- fluenced bythe Gändhära sculptures, seem there- fore to have been supplanted by a national Indian type which 1 The Borosan Buddha figures have also both shoulders covered. Conf. 8. v. Olden- burg, Vostochnyja Zametki pl.11 (no number) 1,2,3; Sven Hedin, Through the Deserts of Asia, vol. II, p,70; a very fine old Indian bronze of the same type, J.4.8.B. vol. LXIV (1895), pt. i, p. 159, and pl. vili. DIFFERENT TYPES OF BUDDHA FIGURES. 175 was afterwards preserved in the southern church and also in Nepal and Tibet. Indeed, a Chinese source gives us the important in- formation that the Buddha image depicted at Nalanda was repre- sented with bared right shoulder. Ill. 126 presents an ancient Nepal type; that shown by the great bronze dating from the 12th or 13th century, which is represented in ill. 127, is ancient Siamese; it is, however, ex- traordinarily like the ancient Burmese. Stress must here be laid upon the fact that, with our present knowledge of the subject, it is quite impossible to give a detailed description of the individual tendencies. The different types, therefore, can only be sketched so far as they are at present known; placed in relation to ancient pieces; and, only in very special cases of Eins contact can any connexion be estab- er Fin lished. Above all, there are blanks Ye, ile Bl in the accessible material—both in ’ vill PN; iy, respect of the history of the religion is nls and the monuments preserved. It 1% ee a SoN seems as if the different types be- With Buddha the vajra-bearer, longed to different schools. Thus it Amarävati relief? happens that in China, Lamaism, z.e. Tibetan Buddhism, preserves the Indian type of Buddha with the bare right shoulder, which it got from Nepäl; while the ancient Chinese Buddhism, the so-called Foism, possesses the type, which in its draping, etc., points indirectly back to the Gändhära sculptures. That, notwithstanding, it appears in Lamaist sculptures also, is not denied. Besides we must take into consideration the fact that the southern school, at this time completely cut off from the northern one, by the revival of the Brahmanical cult, and, later still more radically, by Islam, was not by any means entirely separated in the Middle Ages. In fact, the northern school, more than once, exerted an influence in dogmatic, but still more in artistic depart- ments in certain countries belonging to the southern school? The Buddhist statues of old Kamboja, and further, partly of old Siam, old Burma, modern Shan, and Laos—which always appear in royal attire and crown —have a peculiar—perhaps local character, which is only a variety of the old Indian. Some further points, that strike us in the Buddha type, which appears for the first time in Gandhara, are—the aureole, the sitting attitude, and the position of ag ı\ i Ul ey u ! Conf. Hirth, Ueber fremde Einflüsse auf die Chines. Kunst, 8,51. 2 From Fergusson, Tree and Serp. Wor. pl. lix, p. 189. * Conf. in this connection B. Lanfer’s pertinent remarks in @/obus, Bd. LX XIII, 2, S. 31, fig. 6. 176 POSITIONS OF THE LIMBS. the hands. All that is necessary has already been said on the aureole (p. 86). 124. BUDDHA FIGURES ATTENDED BY BODHISATTVAS. From a modern Japanese pieture representing Amitäbha’s Paradise. Original in Berlin Museum. The change of position in the limbs gives to art the opportunity of characterising the action it desires to give to the figure. As to the feet, as the Buddha-figure is debarred every movement, there only remains the sitting posture in which, as has been pointed out, the VARIED POSES OF THE BUDDHA FIGURE. ar ascetics must give the standard ; the upright position and a slight variation of it—the slowly stepping. In the reliefs—which we should imagine have been arranged in the workshop from model figures—the last type is the favourite one, and, as has been pointed out, with a lean- ing to the ancient idea of the sacrificing general. The artist has more free- dom in the question of the hands.! If we hold by the purely technical origin of our relief, let us watch how the sculptor changes his model figures, according to the legend which he is to represent. Thus gradually, certain hand-postures at- tached themselves to par- ticular legends, and the position of the hands in the chief figure becomes an indication of the legend. If we leave the theoretical side of the mudrä, we can gather so much for the practical art, thatthe whole life of Buddha, in its dif- ferent incidents, required a series of modifications of hand postures, which were allotted for purposes of distinction to one and the same figure, and natur- ally we oftenest meet with those postures which illus- trate favourite scenes. What has been said is important on the ar 125. CHINESE BUDDHA FIGURE, considerations: It has been! Carved in wood and gold lacquered. above pointed out that, Original in Berlin Museum. under the influence of art, the Buddha type broke free from the person; the idolatry, however, lay deeper and was older. !On the mudräs, see Ar. Sur. W. Ind. miscel. publ. No. 9, p.99; Ind. Ant. vol. XXVI, p.24; Waddell, Lamaism, p. 335f.; Grünwedel, Mythol. d. Buddhismus in Tibet, 8.200, n. 22; Schlagintweit, Buddhism in Tibet, pp. 56, 208; Foucher. Etude sur VIconographie Bouddhigue, pp. 68f.—J.B. 178 RISE OF THE CULT OF BUDDHA. Even while Buddha was still alive, the rudiments of a formal cult for him seem to have here and there appeared ; various episodes, related in the éfakas and the literature allied to them, indicate 126. OLD NEPAL STONE FIGURE OF GAUTAMA BUDDHA: Seated on the lion throne with the formula: Ye dharma hetuprabhaväh.! Original in Berlin Museum. this. We learn how Buddha again and again seeks to make his position clear even to his most devoted followers, and yet how it fared with him as with all religious teachers at all times: they themselves become the objects of worship—the gods of their sects. Even the latest Indian reformer, the Bengält Chandra-séna, of the ! On the formula conf, Arch. Sur. W, Ind. vol. V, p. 13, note 3. THE CULE OF BUDDHA. 179 Brahmä-Samäj, in the present century, has had to defend himself against this. The apotheosis is still easier after death. It is char- acteristic of the biography of every reformer that it is idealized and remodelled, and so gradually becomes legendary.! The description of the life of Buddha, the sources of the individual versions of which 127. OLD SIAMESE BRONZE: GAUTAMA BUDDHA (P’ra Kodom) from the ruins of Kampeng Pet, 12th-13th cent. Size 124 inches. Original in Berlin Museum. (the Avidirenidina, Lalita Vistara, etc.) have not been investi- gated, and between which no parallel has been made,—are imposing poems of considerable extent. The more the figure of the man, from whom a religious school has sprung, is deified, the more insistent becomes the question, whether he may ever come again. In India this development seemed a very natural one on account of the doctrine of the metempsychosis. The view of the Buddhist was not that Gautama, who had trodden the immortal path (amatam padam), might come again, but rather that there were other beings who become Buddhas. One word, which Gautama seemingly used "Conf. e.g. the case of Näräyana Svämi, Heber’s Narrative (ed. 1829), vol. III, pp. 29f., 34-42 ; Ind, Ant. vol. I, pp. 331-36; Briggs, Cities of Gujardshtra, pp, 235ff. and app. xiii-xxiv.—J.B. 180 THE TATHAGATA. for himself, and which is among the most difficult of his terms, is the word Zathdgata, “the one, who came thus.” Originally, no doubt, it simply meant, “he who came like all other men.” But 128. OLD INDIAN CLAY SEAL FROM BuDDHA GAYA. Gautama Buddha surrounded by small stüpas; behind him the branches of the Bodhi tree and—-as it appears—the spire of the temple at Gaya. Original in Berlin Museum. soon an emphatic reference to the supernatural was seen in the term. So the circle of representation expanded till it was received as, “he who has come as his predecessors.” In connexion with this is the idea that there have been, not one, but several Buddhas; and that each being, who wishes to become a Buddha, must in a former BUDDHA’S PREDECESSORS AND SUCCESSOR. 181 existence have met a Buddha and expressed to him his wish to become the enlightener. These teachers of mankind appear upon the earth at long intervals and the doctrine (Dharma) which they all teach is the same. With each there is a period in which the doctrine flourishes, then a gradual decline, then it is overborne by the barbarians and completely overthrown,! till a new deliverer appears and once more establishes the lost truths in all their purity. Gautama Buddha’s predecessors are: Vipasyi (Pali, Vipassi) ; Sikh?t (Pali, Sikhi); Visvabhü (Pali, Vessabht); Krakuch- chanda (Pali, Kakusandha); Kanakamuni (Pali, Konäga- mana); and Kasyapa (Pali, Kassapa). Both the northern and southern schools recognise these direct predecessors of Gautama (a complete list would give more) ; the details related about them in both traditions and the names of the trees, under which they ob- tained enlightenment, agree and point to one source.” But the representations of them given in the southern and northern church no longer agree. Of this, more hereafter. The last Buddha of this age of the world, after Gautama, will be Maitreya (Pali, Metteya; Tib. Jamba, written Byams-pa), “the loving one.” ‘The northern school fully recognises him and puts revelations into his mouth; indeed, he is venerated everywhere, almost more than Gautama. In the southern canon, so far as I can see, he does not appear; though he is mentioned in the Singhalese chronicle, the Mahävansa. Maitreya is the Bodhi- sattva of the present age. . Mention has been made (p. 59) of the ¥étakas, which describe the previous forms of existence of a Buddha, that is a Bodhisattva— a being whose characteristic (safva ; Pali, satfa) is enlightenment (bodhi), who while doing a pious action, in the presence of a Buddha, expresses his desire, in a later incarnation, to become a Buddha. According to the theory, Gautama also expressed this wish before former Buddhas (Pali, panzdhim kar). The sum total of his good actions (Pali. amma) allows him at each reincarnation to be born as a superior being in a constantly ascending scale of goodness, till, in the lusita heaven, he resolves to accept another human exist- ance, that he may show to bewildered man the way of salvation, and then to enter Nirvaza himself. According to theory, the Bodhisattvas are innumerable; and it 1 The “ period of the first law’ lasts 200 or some say 500 years from Säkya Muni’s death. The second era is called Saddharma pratirüpaka— “the law of figures or images,” and lasts 1000 years; and the third epoch, the “last law” or period of de- clining religion, should last 3000 years, after which Maitreya renews the process. — Des Guignes, Mém. de U’ Acad. des Inscrip. tom. xl. p.201; Beal’s Romantic Legend, p.9.—J.B. ? Ante p.74. The trees thus sacred to the seven Buddhas are respectively : Patali (Bignonia suaveolens), Pundarika (a kind of manyo), Sila (Shorea robusta), Sirisa (Acacia sir.), Udumbara ( Ficus glomerata), Nyagrodha (Ficus indica), and Pippala (Ficus religiosa). A remarkable correspondence exists here between the twenty-four past Buddhas and the Jaina Tirthamkaras. See Ind. Ant, vol. XIII, p. 276; Jour, As, 8. Beng. vol. V, pp, 321f.; Sp. Hardy, Man. Budh. p. 89.—J.B. 182 GENESIS OF THE BODHISATTVAS. is the object of the religions of the Mahayana school,—which un- doubtedly must be brought into connexion with our Gändhära sculptures,—to aspire to the transmigration as Bodhisattva—“ the great career,” as opposed to the Hinayana (the old school), the monks of which were only interested in their own salvation. The Bodhisattva representation of later art is that of a royally attired young man, developed from the legend of the historic Buddha, who was, as we learn, a prinee (ill. 129). Thus we may claim these youthful figures in rich attire, so frequent among Gandhara sculp- tures, as Bodhisattvas. They wear crowns or richly ornamented turbans, or curly hair; they are decked with bracelets, necklets and breast-chains. In common with the unornamented repre- sentations of Buddha, they have the mark above the nose, called the ärnä, and the nimbus. The Bodhisattvas, as has already been remarked, belong only to the northern or Mahayana schools. Except Maitreya, they are unknown in Ceylon, Siam, and Burma. In Ceylon and Siam the usual attendants or supporters of Buddha in the temple shrines are Sariputtra and Maudgalyayana, —the “disciples of the right and left hand,” with Ananda, Kasyapa, etc., standing by ; in China, Ananda and Käsyapa frequently occupy the like positions, or with Sari- puttra and Maudgalyäyana, Mafjusri and 129. Boputsarrva. From Samantabhadra, form a group of six be- Swat. Calcutta Mus. side the Buddha. And in many of the Indian cave sculptures we find the attendant figures, as it were, in a state of transition, holding chauris as servants, and also with some of the insignia of the later divinities. As Buddhism spread, the converts naturally carried into their new religion much of their reverence for the old Hindt gods, and they found that the traditions offered them already embraced Indra, Brahma, and others of their former divinities. Among the Hinayäna sects in the south, little change was made: Vishzu, Brahma, Narayana, etc., were simply accepted under their Hindi names. But with the Mahäyäna schools, whilst these gods were received, they were made to fit into an elaborate system of nomenclature and myth by which each was assigned a place in the illimitable eons of their cosmogony: Indra or Sakra became Satamanyu and Vajrapami, and his heaven of Swarga was named Trayastrimsa- DERIVATIONS FROM HINDUISM. 183 loka; Brahma, so well known in Bauddha legend, had his chief attributes transferred to Mafjusri—the “lamp of wisdom” and of super- natural power ; and still Sarasvati continued to be one of his wives, the other being Lakshmi; Avalokitesvara or Pad- mapäzi, again, has some analogy to the attributes of Vishzu or Padma- nabha;! Virüpäksha, one of the “four kings,” bears one of Siva’s well-known names; the Sapta Tatha- gatas take the place of the Brahman Seven Rishis; and even Ga- nesa has been taken over both as Vinäyaka and as the demon Vina- taka (Jap. Binayakia). Then Maudgalyäyana, the arhat, became Ma- hästhäma or Mahästhä- naprapta Bodhisattva, and still kept his place at Buddha Amitäbha’s left hand in a popular triad analogous to the Saiva Trimurti. But in the easy-going way of such a religion, Ajita or Maitreya—the Buddha of the future—was also given the same place, and with Säkyamuni and Avalokitesvara forms an alternative Triratna or triad. This, then, seems to be as rational a theory For api 130. YOUTHFUL BODHISATTVA. as we can form © the Lahor Museum. From a photograph. genesis of these rather superfluous creations of the northern schools of Buddhism. In the later developments of Nepalese and Tibetan sectaries their röle is enlarged and varied. 'See Arch. Sur. W. Ind, vol. V. pp. 14, 17. 184 THE MAHAYANA BODHISATTVAS. When first adopted by the Mahayana sects, the Bodhisattvas were probably best known by names denoting some easily recog- nised symbol or attribute, but in course of time, as the forms of the old gods faded out of the regards of the later religionists, these gave way to the hierarchical nomenclature. And the new members of the Pantheon were in no want of designations: one of them— Vikauzuka Bodhisattva—has no less than 108 names: Mafjusri, for example, is variously styled Balavrata, Mahämati, Jidnadar- pana, Khadgin, Kumäraräja, Dazdin, Mafjubhadra, Sthirachakra, Vajradhara, Sikhädhara, Nilotpalin, Särdülavähana, Simhakela, Vibhüshana, etc. Different schools, too, intröduced or specially favoured particular Bodhisattvas, e.g., the Yogächäryas exalt Samantabhadra, Vajra- sattva, Mafjusri (under the designation of Vajrapä»i), Ratnapäzi, etc. The number of these creations has thus become legion: the following list of those more frequently mentioned by name in Bauddha literature might easily be augmented :— Akshayamati Pürzachandra Anantachäritra Pürzamaiträyaziputtra Anantavikrämin Räsh/rapäla Anikshiptadhura Ratnachandra Avalokitesvara or Padmapäri Ratnapäzi Bhadrapäla | Ratnaprabha Bhaishajyasamudgata Ruchiraketu Buddhasrijnäna Sadäparibhüta Dhararzindhara Samantabhadra Gadgadesvara Sarvasattvapriyadarsana Ghanfäpäni Sarvärthanäman Kshitigarbha Satatasamitäbhiyukta Mahäpratibhäna Simha Mahästhänapräpta Srigarbha Mahävikrämin Supratish/Aitachäritra Maitreya or Ajita Trailokavikrämin Maäjusri or Mahämati Triratnärya Märichi Vajragandha Nakshatraräja Vajrapänior Vajradhara Nityodyukta Vajrasattva Padmasila Vikauzuka Padmasrt Visish¢acharitra Pradanastra Visuddhachäritra Prajnäküta Visvapazi or Akäsagarbha Pratibhäna &c., &c. in. The identification of the images of different Bodhisattvas is only possible in special instances: they mostly bear a very close re- semblance to one another. But some of the more prominent of them have emblems by which they may be recognised: Avalokites- vara or Padmapän»i has a white lotus in one hand, and on the front of his crown or mukuta is a small figure of a seated Buddha. BODHISATTVAS WITH THE RANK OF BUDDHA. 185 Vajrapäni has a dägaba or chaitya as a cognizance (chihna) on his forehead and the vajra in his hand: but Mahästhänapräpta also appears with the same chaitya and with a diamond va7ra supported on a flower. Majfijusri has a book, either in his hand or on a flower, and a sword; and Akäsagarbha or Visvapäri is recognised by the same weapon placed on a flower; and so on.—J.B. The fact that, in the scenes of the reliefs, which represent in- cidents before Gautama attained supreme knowledge, he is invari- ably depicted in the same way (conf. ill. 50, 81),) proves éerearly that the figures de- scribed can only represent Bodhisattvas. Now later art, in a purely theoretic way, gives to indi- vidual Bodhi- sattvastherank of Buddhas though not yet attained by them, and de- picts them in the Buddha- type, though with strict ad- herence to a fixed posture of the hands ; thus the Maitreya crema abet (copied on page 134, fig. 85) is just a Buddha with the Drarmachakra-mudrä—a position which, in Lamaism, always denotes Maitreya, but may also be used for other Buddhas. Now arises the difficult question whether these positions are established in the Gändhära sculptures, and whether, in the other attributes of the Bodhisattvas represented as princes, there may be a fixed and distinctive arrangement of the limbs. Beginning with the last question, one attribute among the Gän- dhara figures strikes us: it is a small bottle with a pointed bottom. ! Conf. Bowring’s Siam, vol, I (1857), pl. at p.316 (middle figure) ; Alabaster, Wheel of the Law, pp. 164, 208. 131. Torso oF A BODHISATTVA FROM TAKHT-i-BAHi. Original in Berlin Museum, 12 inches in height. 186 MODERN REPRESENTATIONS OF MAITREYA. The modern representation of Maitreya (Tibetan, Jampa, written Byams-pa; Mongol, Maidari) in the pantheon of the northern school, as it has been developed in Tibet, shows the Bodhisattva in the ornaments and dress of a Hindi god or ancient Indian king, — generally of very youthful appearance. As a rule he is represented standing, but occasionally seated on a chair in European fashion. In the case of standing figures of Maitreya, the dhoti (under gar- ment) is often caught up so high that the left leg remains bare to above the knee (conf. ill. 135). The modern attributes are the water flask or bottle (Tib. dum-pa; Skt. mangalakaläsa)—the most im- portant requisite, and the rosary.! Frequently both attributes rest upon the conventionally executed lotus flowers, which the figure holds in its hand. This modern representation is important, since it seeks to combine the more ancient types above referred to with the new attributes. The old Indian bronze figure from Pekin, represented in ill. 134, now in the royal Ethnological Museum at Berlin, is clad in a short loin- cloth, the right hand without attribute, the left holding between the fingers something resembling the bud 133. SMALL BODHISATTVA of a flower. On the STATUE (Maitreya?) on a ] se Eh small relief fragment, from |Ower Side ol the the lower monastery at hand are traces of ee Natthu, near Sanghäo. something having 132, HAND WITH GREEK From Cole, pl. 20. i been broken off. OINTMENT FLASK. Swit district. Orig. in Ber. Mus. One of the oldest objects in the Berlin Museum is a bronze (of which, unfortunately, nothing is known for certain), which affords an interesting parallel. The figure repre- sented in ill. 135 shows the same position of the hand as the Pekin Maitreya (ill. 134). It is executed, however, infinitely more care- fully: the garments, the lips, are inlaid with copper; the crown ornaments, edges and pattern on the robe, and even the whites of the eyes are inlaid with silver. The style is that of Nepal. The right hand holds the rosary ; the left, in the same position as the 1 Conf. Veröffentl. aus dem Kgl. Mus, fiir Völkerk. Berl. X1, 2/3 (1890) Ss. 47,77. A Lamaist Maitreya standing with two lotus flowers (r. and 1. hd.) conf. Uchtomskij, Beschreibung der Or. Reise, s.k. H.d. Grossf.-Thronfolgers (Russian ed., the German wants some of the plates) V, xxiv; also Grünwedel, Mythol. Buddh. in Tibet, p. 123). The Japanese Maitreya (Miroku) has his hands in his lap and a flask resting upon them, Hofmann, Buddhapantheon von Nippon, 8. 146, fig. 176 (pl. xx), and S. 541 (pl. xxxvi). MAITREYA WITH THE FLASK IN GANDHARA. 187 Pekin bronze, holds a small bottle with pointed bottom. It appears that this flask also existed in the case of that bronze, but is now broken away; the flower-like knob in the hand is the mouth of the bottle. On the latter, the representation of a stipa ap- pears on the crown, in the distinctive manner of the Nepal style. This last attribute, with the rosary, suggests that though the type of the figure—as well as the symbol in the left hand —is identical in both, we are hardly justified in calling this latter figure also a Maitreya. If, meanwhile, we leave this figure out of account, the further data tend to the determination of the Maitreya-type. - There is in the Royal Berlin Museum also a Tibetan minia- ture on silk which depicts Maitreya (described on a label as Byams-pa) in exactly the same attitude as in the two bronzes, though without attri- butes and with rich curly hair. Instead of a crown, the figure wears a fillet. The truthfulness of the Tibetan tradition is shown by a com- parison of the illustrations Nos. 82 and 85. The latter picture (from the collection of the brothers Schlagintweit) repre- sents Maitreya as Buddha,z.e.in 134. OL Inpıan BRONZE OF JAMBA the form in which Lamaism en) 2 te depicts: him as: a perfected I a FA Pl (ig ie adi His Pi SS Original in Berlin Museum. feature is the hands in front of the breast with the fingers arranged in a mystic position (mudrä)—the so-called dharmachakramudrä, which Gautama also receives especially in the representations of the sermon at Banaras. This picture is named and has already been published by Schlagintweit (Buddh. in Tibet, p. 88). Beside 1 The title of “ Byams-pa” the figure received in Pekin, and it is entered so in the MS. catalogue of the Pander collection. That catalogue was written in Tibetan letters in Pekin. If S. von Oldenburg (Vostochn. Zam. 363; Globus, 3 Feb, 1900, 8.73) says he is unwilling to speak about the figure as it is difficult to give a decision, I can only emphasize the accuracy of the title. 188 MAITREYA IN GANDHARA IDENTIFIED. the chief figure, divinities rather smaller in size are represented as — servants,and above are eight small Buddha pictures; the last of these is the same as the middle figure and must therefore be again Maitreya; the preceding one is undoubtedly Gautama. The other six must then be Gautama’s predecessors: Vipasyi, Sikhi, Visvabhü, Krakuchchhanda, Kanaka- muni, Käsyapa.! On the relief from Muhammad Nari, in ill.82, eight Buddha statues are shown under the middle figure in splendidly composed types. The last of these, which, on the right of the sculpture, is turned towards the human wor- shippers (perhaps the do- nors of the relief?) does not wear the robe but has the customary lower garment, curled hair, and a small flask in the left hand: it is Maitreya. The preceding figure is the usual one of Gautama; the others are his six predecessors, as above. This shows that the royal figures of the Gändhära monasteries with the flask may represent the Bodhisattva Maitreya, and that the Muhammad Näri ae relief actually does so. 135. IMAGE OF A BODDHISATTVA. Indian bronze inlaid with silver and copper. But this sculpture (ill. 82) Height 7% inches. Original in Berlin Mus. | proves still more: com- parison with the Tibet picture shows that the central figure is the same: we may call it Maitreya represented as the Buddha.? Conf. p. 194. 1 We find the same eight figures painted over the door of Cave XVII and on the wall of the shrine in Cave XXII at Ajanti; in the latter, the names of the Buddhas are given below each, and of their respective Bodhi-trees above them ; Notes on Ajanta Paintings, pp.63 and 81; and Inscriptions from Cave Temples (Bombay, 1881), p, 88; also Griffiths, Paintings from Ajanta, vol. I, pll.Ixi and xei, and pp. 36, 40.—J.B. 2 Emphatically, we have to do with a Buddha figure with the dharmachakramudrä. THE DHARMACHAKRAMUDRA, KASYAPA-BUDDHA. 189 Another result of this examination appears,—that even in the Gändhära school had arisen the scheme of distinguishing their saints by the different positions of the hand and fingers. Single types in the life of Buddha become, as it were, permanent attributes for certain figures ; thus, the position of the hands before the breast in the so-called dharmachakramudré is really that of the Buddha who ‘turns the wheel of the law’ (conf. p.177). But even in the Gändhära school, we find Maitreya in this pose as the Buddha of the future who will yet turn the wheel of the doctrine. The representation of Käsyapa-Buddha,! the predecessor of Sakya- muni, is of interest. The attitude has not been noticed elsewhere, and was perhaps of no length- ened duration in the Bud- dhist sculpture of later times. The Berlin Museum possesses a small figure, somewhat chipped, which has doubtless formed part of a relief now destroyed, but which may be related to the figure shown on ill. 82. Käsyapa’s robe fits close to the body, and his right hand wrapped in it clasps it on his breast, while the left holds the falling garment. The other six Buddhas are thrown into the shade by 136. A BODHISATTVA FROM SWAT: the this characteristic type, head to be completed as in ill. 130. : : Original in Berlin Museum. which in some ways re- minds us of the statue of Sophocles in the Lateran. A systematic examination of all the types belonging to this group, along with the few representations to hand of the southern church, cannot be undertaken yet, from the want of available material. Suffice it to say, that even among the sculptures of the This is the most common form in the shrines at Ajantä. In Lamaism Maitreya has always this mudrd when he is placed in comparison with Säkyamuni. Conf. Schiefner, Buddhistische Triglotti, 8.1. ‘ Not to be confounded with the Brahmaza of the same name mentioned at pp, 62f. For the awakening of Käsyapa, conf. Schiefner, Mel. As. Ac. St. Pétersbourg, tom. VII (1874), pp. 417f.; S. Beal, Ind. Ant. vol. XII, p.328. What is said above only points out that Käsyapa is found in the above pose, but not that every image so repre- sented must be Käsyapa ; conf. fig. 140 (p. 192), right side attendant, 190 KÄSYAPA-BUDDHA. MAITREYA WORSHIP. Gändhära period, alongside Gautama, Maitreya and Käsyapa in particular play a prominent part. It may be pointed out that, in the eschatology of northern Buddhism, a highly interesting con- nexion is established between the two last named. Käsyapa lies uncorrupted in his stüpa: when Maitreya shall appear on earth, he will rise, work miracles, and disappear in flames,—a legend which strongly reminds us of a Persian (and a Muhammadan) tale. But here, too, we are perhaps justified in pointing out the striking similarity of the representation of the coming Maitreya with Saoshyant (Sosiosh), the deliverer in the Parsi religion. Even though we do not know when the legend of Saoshyant re- ceived the development it now presents, still the domi- nant position of Maitreya in the northern school must have been influenced by it. The worship of Maitreya must have been fully de- veloped even in the fifth century, for the Chinese pilgrims know a set form of prayer to the Bodhisattva. The Gändhära sculptures, corresponding in this with the report of Fah-hian, show the worship at its height. Tradition connects Mai- treya directly with the origin of the Mahayana school in representing the Tantras as received from Maitreya by the monk 137. BUDDHA ee en Asafiga, who is regarded as Khel in'Swht. Oviginal in SR the founder of ‚the whole later pantheon.! The Maha- yana school—the so-called “ greater vehicle,” no longer seeks after the deliverance of the individual, but for rebirth as a Bodhisattva. These aspirations were developed by the learned character of the monks in the northern system, who regarded the followers of the 1On Asaüga, see Rhys Davids. Buddhism, pp. 208f.; Beal, Si-yu-ki, vol. I, p. 226; Eitel, s.v.; Schiefner, Lebensbeschr. des Buddha Sdkyamuni, 8. 80; Vassilief, Le Bouddhisme, pp. 267ff. How far Maitreya is connected with the Mahayana school, is witnessed by the following independent proof. Ho-shang, the follower of the Mahayana, passes as an incarnation of this Bodhisattva and is always associated with the Loka- pälas, which agrees with our remarks, p. 130, &e. Veröffentl. aus d. Kgl. Mus. für Völkerk. Bd. I, 2/3, 8.89. BODHISATTVA FIGURES WITH LOTUS FLOWERS. IQI old doctrine with disdain as representatives of the “lesser vehicle” (Hinayäna). Among the sculptures from the Gändhära monas- teries, we find such a multitude of figures bearing the Bodhisattva character, that it would be impossible to regard them all as figures of Maitreya, even if we believed that at that period the cult of this Bodhisattva was at its height. Besides the symbol of the flask (compare the relief, ill.136, and the hand, ill. 132) we find represented as a favourite attribute in the hands of the Bodhisattva large single blossoms of the lotus flower! 138. SMALL FIGURE OF A BUDDHA, 139. FIGURE OF A BODHISATTVA, broken from a relief which has been with a bunch of lotus flowers in like that in ill, 82. From Kadam his right, and a vessel in his left Kuki Khel in Swat. Original in hand. Plaster cast in Königl. Berlin Museum, Mus. f. Vélkerk. Berlin. or whole bunches of such: an attribute that is readily explained by the religious custom (flower offerings). Among Indian sculptures Maitreya is distinguishable by the lotus flower in his hand; I need only refer to the Bauddha figures found at Supärä, which series closes with a Bodhisattva holding only a perfect lotus flower and no vessel. The two attributes—the flowers and flask—are well known from SAajficht; in the Gändhära school, indeed, the antique flask with the pointed bottom takes the place of the round Indian 1 The lotus flower as Maitreya’s emblem is noticed above p. 186, note 1. This is also shown in older art: Bhagvänläl Indraji, Supärä and Padana, in Jour. Bom. Br. R.A. Soc, vol. XV, p. 298, and pl. v. where the whole series proves that Maitreya (and not Padmapini) is meant. 192 MAITREYA, PADMAPÄNI, ETG: lötä. As has been already noted, modern art in Tibet assigns to Maitreya both symbols, but for the vessel the long-beaked ritual jar (mangalakaläsa). We may here notice a broken relief from Kafirko¢ in Swat, now in the British Museum (ill. 140). The style of art is less educated or cruder than usual. To the left is a Bodhisattva seated on an äsana, holding a flask in his left hand, and the right raised in the abhayapänı mudrä: this we take to be Maitreya. His breast and ' 140. BUDDHA AND BoDHISATTVA. Buddha is attended by Sakra and Käsyapa (?) ; the Bodhisattva is probably Maitreya with an attendant. The fragment is 73 in. high and about 134 in. long. Brit. Mus. right shoulder are bare, but he wears bracelets, necklace, ear-rings, &c., and is attended by a figure with a large bunch of flowers. The rest of the slab is occupied by Sakyamuni, attended on the left by a monk whose right shoulder and arm are covered by his robe, in the style ascribed above to Käsyapa. On his right is Sakra, in this case naked, except for a very scanty loin-cloth; and it is to be noted that, even now, in Nepäl, the Vajra-bearer wears no necklace or other ornaments. Returning then to the bronze in ill. 135, we sce that it represents the same type as the Maitreya in ill. 134. S. von Oldenburg claims ill. 135 for a Padmapäzi, and he furnishes proof that it is so, and that, advancing from this, the name of Padmapänri might be applied to some of the Gändhära sculptures.! But the name Padmapäni is 1 Vostochnya Zametki, pp. 362-3. Oldenburg’s doubts about the stüpa in the crown are unfounded: he conjectures ill. 134 to bear an incorrectly copied figure of Amitäbha; it undoubtedly represents a stüpa. This is an attribute of Padmapini. Notes on Ajanta Paintings, &c.,pl.xxv, 1, where the stüpa stands on the shorn head of Buddha. But Maitreya also has a stüpa in his hair; he is thus represented in the unpublished PADMAPANI OR AVALOKITESVARA. 193 unfortunately not a proper name, but an adjective in substantive form : “he with the lotus flower in the hand,” a round-about name that may be associated with Vajrapdmzi. This Bodhisattva has always produced new representations, so that to-day it presents the most important figure in the pantheon of Tibet: he is incarnate in the Dalai-Lama. Still, we must beware of generalizing too hastily ; the flask in the hand of a Bodhisattva figure, as S. von Oldenburg has pointed out, does not necessarily indicate Maitreya. The proper chihna must decide as to the indi- vidual Bodhisattva; and the Amrita flask ap- pears in modern repre- sentations as an attri- bute of Avalokitesvara or Padmapami. We find this in the 11th century in Nepal ;! also at Börö Budur,? where the ex- istence of a small figure of a seated Buddha Amitabha on the fore- head points distinctly to Avalokitesvara; at Ajanta, we find Ava- lokitesvara with ajug or , eid en tietetehaneana 141, AVALOKITESVARA. 142, A BoDHIsaTTVA, eae ASCE aan From Bagh Caves. From Aurangabad a deer-skin over his left Cave Temples. shoulder; and again holding the palm of his right hand forward (in the vara mudrä), and clasping a flask with oval body and narrow neck in the left. In the caves of Bagh in Mälwä (ill. ı41) also the representation of the same little figure in the head-dress precludes doubt that the repre- sentation is that of Avalokitesvara.* Almost as certainly the Narthang print of the “ five hundred gods,” fol. 85,1. A magnificent large gilded bronze Maitreya in the Berlin Museum, with the lotus flower, the wheel and a little jar upon it, and with the hands in the dharmachakra mudrd, has likewise a stüpa in the crown. But Mahästhänapräpta has it also,—this Bodhisattva occurring very fre- quently in pictures representing Amitäbha’s paradise (Japan) as a companion to Padmapani (with Amitäbha on the crown)—as in the picture from which ill. 124 is taken. Individual Bodhisattva figures are seldom to be distinguished as to their names with absolute certainty. One must start from well-marked groups (triads, &e.) and so seek guidance. It appears as if tradition itself, by the arrangement of Bodhi- sattva figures in wrong succession, had become uncertain, and so named the individuals incorrectly. The same is the case in the representations of the Arhats—and here the Japanese tradition seems to be the best. Conf. on this J. Burgess, Ar. Sur. W. Ind. vol. V, pl. xx, 1, and xix, 6; Jour. Ind. Art, &c., vol. VIII, pp. 38, 63. ! A. Foucher, in Rev. de Vhist. des Religions, tom. xxx, p. 353ff. 2 Börö-Boedoer, Atlas, pl. celxxxi. 3 Burgess, Notes on the Bauddha Rock-temples of Ajanta, pp. 35, 62, * Burgess, Arch. Sur. W. Ind.— Report on Elura Cave-Temples, &c,pl.xx, fig. 2. 194 AVALOKITESVARA. AMITÄBHA. Bodhisattva from the Aurangabad caves! represented in ill. 142, is the same. If now we compare fig. 135 above, with the Gändhära statue represented in ill. 143, Prof. von Oldenburg calls attention to the “ resemblance,—only the rosary in the left hand is wanting, in its place a lotus blossom appears in the palm: it has a nimbus, but is without a crown.? Ill. 121 is an example of Buddha on the padmdsana between two Bodhisattvas, and possibly that on his right held a flask now broken off. It would then appear that, though Maitreya has the flask or jug, it is also an attribute, at least occasionally, of Padmapazi. We may here also consider the origin of the system at least from the sculptor’s side, taking as a starting point a merely descriptive epithet—“he with the lotus flower in the hand.” Here the personalities themselves vanish under the touch, —the vaguer the beginnings the more abundantly the attributes multiply in the sequel, and new a epithets? arise, from which again, under certain circumstances, new ( Lf CUCL SSM personages may evolve. If we accept it as a fact that N N UNS Padmapäri had become established N RT in Gändhära sculpture, it may be 148. A Bopatsarrvs,—Padmapini? Asked whether his spiritual father, Cole, Gr@co-Buddh. Sculp. pl.25. Amitäbha, appears or not. Where later art represents him, he has either the garb and tonsure of a Buddha with the dhydna-mudra (the hands clasped in the lap), or the garb of a Bodhisattva with the same posture of the hands holding in them a vessel with Amrita. Such Buddha figures actually appear in these sculptures (conf. ill. 82, the Buddhas sitting in the frieze), and Bodhisattvas 1 Burgess, Arch. Sur. W. Ind. Rep. vol. III, pl. lv, 1. The scale of drawing deprives us of perfect clearness as to the chihna ; but compare also woodcut 9, p. 80. 2 Globus, 3 Feb. 1900, 8. 73-75. 3 For the common epithets and names of Padmapäni or Avalokitesvara, as Lokesvara, Trailokesvara, Padma, Abhayamdada, Aryapäla, Chintächakra, Halähala, Mahäkaruna, Simhanäda, &e., see J. R. As. Soc. (1894) pp. 76ff.; Notes on Ajanta Paintings, &e., p. 100f. and pll. xxiv-xxvii. Avalokitesvara and Mahästhänapräpta are both mentioned in the Sukhdvati-vydha, §§ 31 and 34, which dates from as early as A.D. 100; conf. S. B, E. vol, XLIX, pt. ii, pp. xxiii, 48, 52, and 176,—J.B. DHYÄNIBUDDHAS. IRANIAN ELEMENTS, 195 also occur, with both hands in the lap, holding the same little bottle or flask mentioned above. Yet it cannot be asserted with certainty that Amitäbha must be meant by these, though it is not improb- able. Indeed, if we follow the Japanese tradition, even the middle figure in ill. 82 might be Amitäbha in Sukhavati; the side figures would then be Padmapäri and Mahasthanaprapta ! We would then have before us here the beginning of the theory of the Dhyäni or meditative Buddhas, which forms the basis of the Mahäyäna doctrine. “ Even.the southern school recognises four stages of mystic con- templation (Skt. dhyäna ; Pali, 7hdéna), which the northern school subsequently increased to five. ‘These five Dhyänas correspond, in the cosmogony, to the series of heavens in five terraces,—the so- called Brahmalokas, which rise above the inferior heavens of the gods, Devalokas (conf. pp. 60, 61). The theory then arose that each Buddha dwelling on the earth had his mystic counterpart (Dhydnt- buddha) in one of the Dhyäni-heavens, and that each of them again had his Bodhisattva or successor. Thus, with the five human Buddhas of the present period of the world’s existence (ka/pa), are associated five mystic antitypes in the corresponding Dhyäni degrees with their five successors (Dhydni-bodhisattvas). We have thus the following correspondences :-— Human Buddhas (Mänushi-buddhas) Dhyäni Buddhas} Dhydni Bodhisattvas. 1. Krakuchehanda Vairochana Samantabhadra 2. Kanakamuni Akshobhya Vajrapäni 3. Käsyapı Ratnasambhava Ratnapani 4. Gautama Amitäbha Padmapäni 5. Maitreya Amoghasiddha Visvapäni After the advent of Maitreya as Buddha the present world will be destroyed. Prof. Rhys Davids has called attention to the fact that the whole theory, according to which every human Buddha emanates from his spiritus rector (Dhyäni-buddha), bears a resemblance to the zons and emanations of the Gnostics, and he regards it as not impossible that these beings owe their existence to Persian influence. Note- worthy in this connexion is the name “ Immeasurable light” given to Amitabha—from whom Gautama is said to have emanated: it ‘points distinctly to contact with the old Persian light worship. The whole doctrine of the Dhyänibuddhas and Dhyänibodhi- sattvas appears to rest on the Zoroastrian theory of the Fravashis (Fervers). According to the Masdayasnian conception, every being, whether dead, living, or unborn, has his Fravashi, which joins itself to the body at birth, and after death intercedes for it. We have thus Iranian influence distinctly before us, which accords with the local surroundings of the Gändhära school. It was 1 See Notes on Ajanta Paintings, p.99f,, for the mudräs, chihnas, colours zat sym- bols of these Matäntara- paüch: a-Buddhämnäya ; there are also other arrangements in Nepal of six, seven and nine,—J. B. 196 REPETITIONS OF BUDDHA FIGURES. necessary to touch upon these crude materials, since only in this way can we comprehend the never-ending repetition of Buddha figures in the buildings of later Buddhism. The Buddhas and Bodhisattvas from the rock-temples at Elurä, represented in ill. 144 and 145, are of this sort. In ill. 144 we have the Buddha type repeated five times, perhaps for the five Dhyäni- 2 SIULZZEY/S NAMNAAALAY (ALAS SS AA OSES ITIINYYYYYK (AA TE XAT NIT 144, BODHISATTVAS ON THE RIGHT SIDE OF THE SANCTUM IN Tin THAL. Burgess, Rep. on Elura Cave Temp., Ar. Sur.W. Ind. vol. V, pl. xx, 1. buddhas—all having here the dAyänamudrä (the hands laid one upon another in the lap); though if they represent Dhyänibuddhas other mudräs are usually assigned to each, except Amitäbha. Be- neath we see five Bodhisattvas in the usual royal garb as in Gan- dhara—only more markedly Hindu; they bear lotus flowers, some with special symbols over them, and one has a small flag. Further, the outmost is represented larger than the others and with a vajra over the flower he holds: whether he represents Vajrapäzı or Mahästhänapräpta has perhaps yet to be decided. So in the case of ill. 145, in which eight Bodhisattvas are grouped seated round the Buddha,! we might naturally suppose that Padmap4zi with the lotus flower, and the little Amitäbha figure in the hair, is the one 1 Ar. Sur. W. Ind. vol. V, pp. 16f, Bunyiu Nanjio was of opinion that the eight here figured are the Hachi-dai-chaku-shi or “eight great principal sons” [of Buddha], and reading from left to right he made the upper row Durgatiparisodhana, Akäsagarbha, and Kshitigarbha; the lower three—Maitreya, Avalokitesvara, and Manjusri; with Samantabhadra on the left and Mahästhänapräpta to the right of the central figure, With these figures and others at Elura, compare those represented in Groneman, Tjandi Parambänan op Midden-Java, pl. xlix-lviii.—J.B. OBJECT OF MULTIPLIED BUDDHA FIGURES. 197 on the left, and Vajrapäzi is he with the lotus flower and thunder- bolt over it. This is the beginning of a purely formal distinction between figures which are always the same and all based on the same fundamental type—the seated figures gradually predominating very largely. With the varied arrangements of the fingers,—along with the colour of the body and of the garments changed by painting— other names always ap- pear ; and in this way an endless and _ altogether monotonous pantheon arises,with vague, merely allegorical names, and constant change of at- tributes. Now, as it was considered a salutary act of the best kind 145. WALL-SCULPTURE in the Tin Thal (Elurä). t Ri t Burgess, Report on the Elurä Cave Temples, Ar. Oo represent as many Sur. W. Ind. vol. V, pl. xix, 6. Buddha figures as pos- sible, all artistic activity naturally decayed, and after a time there were only reproductions of the established type that were more or less good, and more or less influenced by the native style. Rows of Buddha figures were employed in the decoration of temple fagades, whole rocks were turned into terrace-reliefs filled with Buddhas, and caves filled with thousands of Buddha statues of all sizes.! We now return to what was said in the first chapter. The Hindu idea of the world recognises man, that is the individual, only as a link in a chain of incarnations. These incarnations are phases of metempsychosis (Sansära). They are completed in world ages which originate, flourish, deteriorate, and vanish; upon which new ones arise to be annihilated in their turn. For every period there are Buddhas; they appear as emanations from countless Buddhas of the meditative spheres—Dhyanibuddhas. In contrast to this is the western idea of constant progress, of constant im- provement, which leaves the powers of the individual free to act, while the sum of the energy of the individualities forms an effective lees 1 I would refer to the Pegu Caves,—R. C. Temple’s Notes on Antiquities in Rama- ünadesa (in Ind, Ant. vol. XXII, pp. 327ff.), pll. iv-vii. From these caves the Royal Museum, Berlin, possesses more than a hundred figures of Buddha. “In Wu-t‘ai-shan, in the province of Shan-hsi in North China, the Yung-kang-ssu temple contains 10,000 small tablets with representations of Maitreya. In Ch‘an-fo-ssu near Pekin, I have seen 1,000 beautifully carved reliefs of Amitäyus the god of longevity.” — Pander in Zeitschr. f. Ethnologie, Bd. XXI (1889), 8. 49. 198 ADIBUDDHA. COLOSSI. LOTUS-THRONE. counterpoise to occasional retrogression and relapses into barbarism. It is quite in keeping with the character of the Indian idea of the world that the image, the picture of the founder of the religion is reduplicated to infinity and so loses its individuality. The Buddha-type, the sole subject of a somewhat statuary kind, which was tentatively developed and canonised, is treated decoratively in the fagade ornamentation of magnificent temples. In relation to the splendour of these monuments, this figure of the one great man is again lost in repetitions to infinity. As mentioned above, the religion had struggled through this phase in another form: the counterbalancing element was the re- turn to a kind of monotheism in the‘ shape of the doctrine of Adibuddha—the primeval Buddha, from which all others emanated. This doctrine had appeared between the 12th and 13th centuries. With the Gändhära sculptures the second period of Buddhist art closed in so far as no new ideas, no new principles of composition appear after that. Still there are some things we may point out, as they were certainly carried over by means of the Gandhara school from the antique into Buddhist art. It is well known that the late antique was in favour of the colossal; Buddhist art like- wise has the colossal, and, indeed, such are the favourite figures: Buddhas in teaching, standing, recumbent form (passing into Nirvaza), and also the statue of Maitreya. It is only necessary to recall the colossal statues at Bämiyän, made famous by Ritter, to indicate how this form of representation has been adopted in Buddhist art.! Another artistic feature, which appears even in the more modern Gändhära sculptures, must, at least, be briefly mentioned,—though it is difficult on the basis of the present materials to explain it fully. This is the lotus flower as a seat, or a kind of pedestal of two lotuses under the feet of the upright Buddha. This earlier form, which in the more ancient (Indian) art belonged only to the goddess Siri, seems to have been further developed in the Gändhära school on the basis of Indian influence. In the case of standing figures it was possibly an illustration of flowery poetical epithets, ‘“lotus- footed,” and such like ; in the case of sitting figures, the represent- ation perhaps had reference to the meditative attitude called 1 Ritter, Die Stüpas oder die Architektonischen Denkmale an der Indo-Baktr. Königstr. u. d. Colosse von Bamiyan, pp. 24f. Hyde (1700) is perhaps the first European to call attention to these colossi, in Hist. Relig. vet. Pers. p.132. Conf. Kaye in Proc. R. Geog. Soc. vol. I (1879) pp. 248ff.; and my note in Beal’s Si-yu-ki, vol. I, p. 51,n.175. There is alarge recumbent figure at Ajanta, Cave XX VI,— Cave Temples, p. 344. The Jainas also erect colossal statues; conf. Ind. Ant. vol. II, pp. 129f., 353f., and vol. V, p. 36.—J.B. Conf, also on Bämiyän, M. G. Talbot in J. R. As. Soc.. N.S., vol. XVIII, pp. 323ff.; other notes from the Chinese pilgrim by Kern, Buddhismus, Bd. II, pp. 212ff. The Maitreya colossus at Yung-ho-kung— Veröffentl. Mus. Volk. Berlin, Ba. I, 2/3, 8.77; in Lhasa, Waddell, Buddh. of Tibet, pp. 320f., 355; Graham Sandberg, Handbk. of Col- loquial Tibetan (Calc. 1894), p.197; to these belong the Miryek (i.e. Maitreya) figures of Korea,—J.R. As. Soc. N.S. vol.XIX, pp. 555-7; the recumbent Buddha colossus, Ind. Ant. vol. XXII, pp. 127ff., pll. xvii, &e. TWO SPECIAL BODHISATTVA-TYPES. 199 “lotus-seat” (padmäsana). At any rate, the Buddha standing on lotus flowers appears even at Amarävati (conf. p. 175) and in the ecclesiastical art of the present day it has become quite a common feature (conf. ill. 82, 85, 123, 124, 140, 141). Two Bodhisattvas of the later pantheon have a distinctly indi- vidual character and thus have afforded material for some fine works which may be mentioned as showing, on the one hand, what was the chief ideal after which Buddhist art strove, and on the other, as clearly evidencing the extraordinary persistency of the Hellenic ideal of Buddha. They are the Bodhisattvas Mafijusri and Padmapäzni already mentioned, and which at a later date were so extraordinarily richly developed. Mafjusri, whose name means something like “having a lovely brilliance,” may possibly have been a real personage, namely, the founder of civilization in Nepal. In the system of the northern school he appears as the representative of that transcendental wis- dom which is the aim of the Mahayana school. His attributes are the sword “of knowledge,” which he wields with his right hand to cleave the clouds of mental darkness (andha- kära), and in the left hand he has a book, which usually rests upon a lotus flower. The relief in the Berlin Museum of a Maäjusri from Java, accord- ing to the inscription on it, was made by Adityavarma in the year 1265 Saka (l.e. A.D. 1343) and is a fine specimen of modern Buddhist sculpture (ill. 146).! The Bodhisattva is sitting on a great lotus flower and leaning against a broad cushion ; his legs are drawn up and crossed in the Indian fashion; and he is in rich dress. He wears a highly orna- mented crown; ear-rings with pendent chains (conf. the ear- ornaments of the Bodhisattva figure from Gandhära in ill. 131); neck and breast chains, chain girdle, upper and lower bracelets, finger and toe rings. From behind the crown hang twisted locks of hair. The upper garment lies in a narrow band about the breast, from the left shoulder to the right side. The under garment clings close and smoothly to the legs, and is richly adorned with very interesting figures (conf. ill. 33), the body is well shaped, full, delicate ; the breast and ribs are rounded and unmarked by bones or muscles. The feet unused to walking, the soles are soft-like and pressed down to an almost impossible degree. The body in the main is full of charming, almost womanly beauty, and has a look of unnatural development, which does not arise from the physical energy of the being represented. The raised arm only holds the sword aloft, but does not strike—it only serves to hold the attri- bute. The whole style of the face shows in great purity the Buddha- type mentioned before (p. 160ff.) ; in it the forms of the Gändhära school are quite recognisable. The appearance of meditative re- 1 For the curious history of this sculpture, see Zeitsch. d. Deutsch. Morgenl. Bd. XVIII (1864), Ss. 494-505. : 200 MANJUSRi: JAVANESE FIGURE. pose is secured by the nearly-closed eyes, the head pressed back on the nape of the neck, so that the very artificially formed, fleshy neck stands out prominently. The mouth is large but not broad, the under lip full, the upper puckered up at the corners almost to 146. OLD JAVANESE RELIEF OF MANJUSRi BODHISATTVA. Inscribed with the date 1265 Saka: 1343 a.p. Original in Berlin Mus. a smile: but the smile seems to be overcome and perfect rest to be attained. The head is best characterised by the distinctive marks of the fourth and highest degree of meditation (dkydéna). According to the ideas of the southern church, the different Dhyänas are as follows :— I. The first Dhyana is a state of joy and happiness which have arisen from a life of solitude, yet full of contemplation and enquiry, after the ascetic is freed from all sensuality and fault. MANJUSRi. PADMAPANI. 201 2. The second Dhyäna-degree is a state of joy and happiness, which have arisen from deep peace of mind without contemplation and investigation, both of which are overcome: it is the bringing to rest of thought—the mastery of contemplation. 3. The third Dhyäna-degree is the state in which he becomes patient through joy and the uprooting of every passion,—glad and conscious of the joy which announces “the worthy one,” the arhat: patient, remembering, happy. 4. The fourth degree of Dhyana is perfect equanimity and re- membrance, without care and without joy, after the previous joy and care have ceased through the putting aside of that which gives joy, and after the putting aside of that which brings care.! The lotus flowers upon which (in modern Tibetan representations) the book usually rests are employed for the decoration of the back- ground. The tasteful arrangement of the leaves and buds, which are represented artistically and with great understanding of Nature, indicates the ancient Indian manner (conf p. ı9f.),. The book, in the usual form of palm-leaf manuscripts, tied round with a string, is held in the left hand. Four smaller figures of Mafijusri, very much resembling the principal one, surround it,—above and below, right and left. From analogy with Tibetan pictures, these appear to be intended for other forms of the Bodhisattva. In this way that sort of arrangement is obtained which we have already noted in the Gandhara reliefs (conf. pp. 130f.) and which is preserved in the paintings of the northern school. On a Tibetan picture the ac- cessory figures would vary—in respect of the five sacred colours— with the character of the principal subject; and as Manjusrt is mostly represented as red, they remain white, yellow, green and blue.” With the modern Tibetan painters these colours must bear a certain proportion to each other on the pictures: above all, the blue (wrathful) forms of the deities must not predominate. Mafijusri, as we have seen, may be regarded, to a certain extent, as the personification of meditation. Padmapazi,—“the all-pitying one,”—is an emanation of Amitabha: having appeared on earth from a lotus flower for the deliverance of mankind, he labours to do away with all suffering and all sorrow in all the domain of creation, so that hell is emptied. Then he returns to his throne, but soon again he sees misery and hell being filled once more. Out of grief his head bursts, &c. Through the co-ordination of this personage with Kuan-yin, the Chinese goddess of pity, an interesting type has been formed. I do not refer to the purely Chinese (female) representations of this Bodhisattva, nor of the widespread eleven-headed ones, but of a 1 But see also Childers, Pali Dictionary, s.v. “jhänam”; Alabaster, Wheel of the Law pp. 192-5; Sp. Hardy, Legends and Theories, pp. 178-180.—J. B. 2 Veröffentl. aus dem. Kgl. Mus. f.Völkerk, Berlin. Bd. 1, H. 2/3, S, 75, 145. ? See the interesting parallel between the early chapters of the Käranda-Vyiüha and the apocryphal Gospel of Nicodemus, by Prof. Cowell, Jour. Philol. vol. VI (1876), pp. 222-31, or Ind. Ant. vol. VIII, pp. 249-53.—J.B. 3 202 BODHISATTVAS FROM SWAT. type which, though derived from Indian forms, is entirely strange to the canon. So represented, the Bodhisattva sits with the right foot drawn up; his right hand rests with the elbow on the right In Calcutta Museum. . 147, BUDDHA ON THE LOTUS-THRONE, WITH ATTENDANT BODHISATTVAS. From Loriyän Tangai. knee, and the head is sunk sorrowfully on the hand, the left hand rests carelessly on the left leg which hangs down. The ornaments and costume, type of the head, &c., continued Indian.! Among the Loriyän Tangai sculptures at Calcutta there is a relief that suggests comparison with such a figure. It is on a slab measuring 22 inches in length and 16 inches high (ill.147). Buddha, 1 Conf. Grünwedel, Myth. d. Buddh. in Tibet, &c., 8. 27, Abb. 22. SWAT FIGURES. AVALOKITESVARA. 203 with features of a somewhat uncommon type, is seated in the centre, on a padmdsana or lotus throne, in the attitude of teaching; a flowering plant overshadows him; and above is a canopy of three compartments, of which the two side ones have pointed arches ; the joinings and ends of the three roofs are finished. with tiger heads ; and in each arch, over the head of its occupant, hangs a bunch of pearls or gems. The lotus on which Buddha sits is sup- ported by two small figures rising out of the earth; in the one on the proper right we might be tempted to recognise Vajrapäzi, but the turban, the covered breast, and roundish or conch-shaped object in his right hand is not in favour of this. A roundish object also lies on the seat in front of Buddha’s left knee. The corresponding figure on the other side—with moustache, round object in one hand, and mace (?) in the other—is not identified. Behind the first a shaven-headed monk kneels in adoration; behind the other, the figure appears to be a female. At each side of the central figure sits a Bodhisattva; that on the proper right probably Manjusri (he “of glorious beauty”) holding in his hand the book of Buddha’s teaching; and the other attendant is Avalokitesvara, or Padmapavi, with a flower in his left hand. Both these figures are very much in the pose of the Japanese figure just referred to. The eleven-headed standing form of Avalokitesvara is very frequent in Nepäl, Tibet, and Japan, and it occurs at an early date in the Kazheri Buddhist cavetemples, as well as among the ruins of Nakon Thom in Kambodia. In this form, as in others, he is represented with four or more arms,— with the upper right hand he holds up a rosary, and with the left a long-stemmed lotus flower (ill. 148). The uppermost head is regarded as that of Amitäbha, who is represented as his spiritual origin ; the others are arranged above one an- other, in threes, as in the Hindi Trimurti, Pe Site here and either the lowest head is single, or the 4 form of a tenth counting upwards.! In represent- a Nepalese drawing. ations with only one head, the figure of Amitäbha is placed as a crest on the mukuta or crown. A favourite relief is what may be called the Litany of Avaloki- tesvara or Padmapazi. It appears in the Bauddha caves at Elura, at Aurangabad, at Kazheri, and both in sculpture and painting at Ajanta. In these scenes the Bodhisattva is represented standing on a lotus and holding the rosary in his right hand and a lotus stem ! Cave Temples, p.357, and pl.lv; Notes on Ajanta, &., p.100 and pl. xxiv. 11; His- toire de l’Art du Japon (Paris, 1900), pll. xvii, xli, p. 911, &e. 204 AVALOKITESVARA. PERSONIFICATION. MULTIPLIED FORMS. in the left; at each side of the panel are representations of sup- pliants in danger from enraged elephants, from lions, snakes, fire and shipwreck, from murder, captivity, death, &c.—from which Padmapän»i delivers them. These scenes, taken in connexion with the late Mr. Beal’s translation from Chinese of the “ Confessional service of the great compassionate Kuan-yin,” are of much interest, and show that at a date before the eighth century the character of this Bodhisattva must have been fully defined.! In other Kazheri sculptures he is attended by a female or Tara at each side; whether this is connected with the worship of these goddesses as female counterparts of Avalokitesvara, has not been investigated. The figures of Manjusrf and Padmapä»i have been dwelt upon as showing how nearly northern Buddhist art approached mere personification. The purely spiritual element so entirely pre- dominates that the human figure has become a mere form. But in the case of these two Bodhisattvas there remains at least a trace of personality, which in other representations--about which something must be said—is completely extinguished. The oldest personifi- cation of this kind is the goddess of transcendental knowledge— Prajn& Päramitä (Tib. Sher-p‘yin-ma), which, in style, as in worship, is not of much account.” ; The final results of this multiplication of forms show a notable degeneration in two directions. On the one hand the limbs no longer suffice to bear all the attributes; several arms, several heads are given to the figure: it is reduplicated in itself. The literal representation of old epithets of strength and splendour probably gave rise to this: words like Sahasrabähu, “the thousand-armed,” 7.e. “he who has the strength of thousands,” and so on, received a purely external meaning. The ancient Indian method, borrowed from West Asia, of determining simple human forms by the ap- pending of attributes,—in itself an altogether inartistic method,— degenerated into something repellant. Therewith real art comes to an end: the figure becomes’a mere hieroglyph, the decking out with few or many attributes gives it the name of some religious idea. On the other hand, the chief figures are relieved of certain qualities which appear as particular Bodhisattvas—male and female. One of these goddesses of the latest Buddhism is “the victorious goddess of the skull-protuberance ”—Ushzishavijaya®—“ having the intelligence of the most splendid perfect one.” 1 See Ar. Sur. W. Ind. vol. ILL, pp. 75, 76, and pl. liii; vol. IV, p. 51, and pl. xxxiii, 3; Cave Temples, p. 357 and pl.lv.1; Notes on Ajanta, &c., p.42; and, for the “ Con- fessional Service,” J. R. A. S. N.S. vol. II (1866), pp. 403-25; Griinwedel, Mythol. des Buddh. in Tibet u. Mongol. 8.65; Waddell, Lamaism, pp. 15, 357.—J.B. 2 Other mere personifications of early date are Dharma (Buddha’s teaching) and Safigha (the assembly of monks, the “church”), the goddess of the six syllables (om mani padme him), &. Conf. also the beautiful figure of an old Javanese Prajiia- päramitä in Bijdragen tot de Taal-Land-en Volkenkunde van Nederl. Indié. 6e Volgr. DI.VIII (C. M. Pleyte, Bijd. tot de kennis van het Mahdydna op Java), fig. 1. 3 Tib. g'Tsug-tor-rnam-par-rygyal-ma. See above p.162. Also Grünwedel, Mythol. des Buddh. in Tibet, &e., Ss. 138, 148, 151. GROUPS OF FIGURES. NUMEROUS PANTHEON. 205 As we have seen, the deities, Bodhisattvas, and Buddhas were represented in Gandhära in groups of threes, fives, eights,—and it seems as though this arrangement had some influence on their attributes : analogies of composition certainly exist. The illustration No. 121 from Loriyän Tangai, in the Calcutta Museum, is an example of a triad group. The relief is 15 inches broad and presents Buddha upon the padmdsana or lotus-seat with a standing Bodhisattva on each side. These can hardly, however, be directly related to the philosophical doctrine of the Ratnatraya as represented by Dharma, Buddha, and Samgha,—for these figures are not very prevalent in Nepal, Tibet, &c. But they are closely connected with the popular worship of the three statues of “the past, present, and future Buddhas” represented by Säkyamuni with Avalokitesvara and Maitreya, and with the other triad of Amitäbha or Amitäyus with Avalokitesvara on his left hand and Mahästhäma on his right. This latter, at least, is an early Mahäyäna arrange- ment since it is represented in the Amitäyur-dhyäna Sütra.! The pantheon of the northern school of Buddhism in Tibet, China, and Japan, is the most gigantic in the world, but it is infinitely monotonous. Hardly a single figure shows real life. It is interest- ing to note how this endless system of models, originated in Tibet, China, and Japan, which, with slight variations of hand-postures, attributes, and colours, is always increasing. It arose from the representation of the monk in China and Japan; in Tibet from the portrait of the hierarch. In the former, the representations of monks, which doubtless began with an ideal portrait of the chief disciples (Sthaviras) and of the ancient magicians, degenerated into caricatures; but in Tibet the real portrait has been developed from the ideal. The Bodhisattvas are always incarnated in the hierarchs of Tibet: Padmap4wi is reborn in the Dalai Lama, &c.; but the Bodhisattvas are eternally the same. The different stages of incar- nation of the saints, however, present variations in their individuality. The portrait of the grand Lama presents an interesting reaction from the artificial rendering of the regions of the gods. The divine in earthly form, in many cases, breaks through in an exquisite way: the figure remains artificial and does not depart from the canon; but the heads of these hierarchs, on the bronzes and miniatures of the ecclesiastical art, are mostly of real artistic value. Of the many good examples of this class which the Berlin Royal Museum possesses is the richly-gilt bronze of the spiritual Prince of Tra-shi-Ihum-bo (#Kra-shis-/hun-po) Pal-dän-ye-she (dPal- /dan-ye-shes), who died in China in 1779 (conf. ill. 149). The portrait of this interesting man is remarkably fresh and faithful. In ! See Sac. B. E. vol. XLIX, pt. ii, pp. 176, 180ff. A quite similar relief is repre- sented in Amardvati and Jaggayyapeta Stüpas,p.12. Mahästhäma is, not improb- ably, a Mahayana deification or analogue of Maudgalyäyana, the right hand disciple of Gautama. Amitäyus is the Sambhogakdya or reflex spirituality of Amitäbha, the corresponding Manushi Buddha being Säkyamuni; his Bodhisattva is Padmapiwi.—J.B. 206 REACTION TO THE PORTRAITS OF MONKS. the coarsely executed but beautifully arranged garment the last off- shoots of the Gändhära school are noticeable. It is in keeping with the political power of the Tibetan hierarchy that the representations of the Grand Lamas should take the first place among the objects to 149. THe GRAND LAMA OF TRA-SHI-LHUM-BO PAL-DÄN-YE-SHE (dPal-/dan-ye-shes) 1737-1779). Gilt bronze from Tibet. The alms-bowl in the left hand is of lapis lazuli. Height 5% inches. Original in Berlin Museum. be venerated: the rudeness and persistent religiousness of the people has preserved this from the fate which befell it in China and Japan, forming a brilliant epoch—the caricatures of monks. The individual element appearing in the portraits of the Lamas surpasses Indian art conditions: it points to the attainments in culture of the people of high Asia. And if we may correctly recognise the Issidones! of Herodotos as the people of Tibet, then the modern ! Tomaschek, Aristeas von Proikonnesos, in Ab.d.k.k. Ak, der Wissensch. in Wien, h. phil. Cl., Bd. CVI (1888), pp. 715f., 718f. MONK PORTRAITS. CARICATURE IN JAPAN, 207 Buddhist cult supplies a true chart of the progress of culture among these high Asian people, whose lot was connected in so re- markable a way with the Hindüs from the time when the Greeks obtained correct information about India. On the Lamaist altars, beside the relics of a barbarian stage—trumpets of human thigh bones, votive bowls of skulls, tambours of children’s skulls—appear Buddha pictures in which traces of late antique artistic elements, still strongly inspiring, have a mystic existence; but beside these are the ideal portraits of the old Indian pazdits and their successors the Lamas, with their intelligent—or, if we might rather say,— crafty faces. It we bear in mind, however, that they were the representatives of culture in those barbaric lands, that they were able to subdue and tame for ever the Mongols, the fiercest con- querors and warriors in the world, and that too without a religious war,—we can only rejoice that these valuable portraits, in modified antique forms, have been handed down. The application and conversion of old sacred types to caricatures has appropriated even old compositions. Among these, as an in- stance, is the representation of the Nirvaza scene. The sketch Pearl PR 150. DEATH OF A WORLDLING. From a Japanese coloured print; conf. Nos. 70-74. Original in Berlin Museum. RE SASSY (ill. 150), from a Japanese picture, represents the death of a world- ling in this manner. His numerous lady friends, and even a small lapdog, give free expression to their grief over the death of the ‘gentleman,’ who, larger than them all, lies before them. It may be asked what is the use of all the asthetic debate about “ Japanese colour printing” so long as the chief facts are unknown to us, so long as we are not in a position to understand the wit— which here, fortunately, we do. With reference to the formally conserved antique elements, out- side India,—as was already noted in connexion with Indian orna- ments,—a noteworthy phenomenon occurs: In India, foreign forms get merged in national ones; metamorphosed in all sorts of ways, they have held a long and highly varied existence, carried down into the Brahmanic art of the Middle Ages; while in lands outside India, the canon developed from the Gändhära sculptures is more closely 208. DECAY OF ART. THE ARTISTS ARE YAKSHAS, ETC, conserved. We need only note the markedly antique elements still visible in the Javanese Buddha and Bodhisattva heads (ill. 115 and 146) compared with the Gändhära types (ill. 110, 111), or the Chino- Japanese arrangement of the garments (ill. 120, 125). The whole phenomenon is connected with language which, I believe, gave rise to the learned and hierarchical character of the northern monastic system. The southern school adhered to the Pali language, because the current Präkrita dialects of India proper were mutually intel- ligible enough, and the development of culture was common to all. Transitions between the Prakrzts existed just as certainly as between the modern idioms of Aryan origin in northern India. But the people of the Panjab had not followed the Brahmanic development (conf. above p.7), and even if in some lands under the Indo-Skythian rule, Aryan dialects were spoken, they un- doubtedly became widely different. To them came the entirely allophylian tribes of the Indo-Skythian kingdom—Hellenes, Yueh- chis, the tribes of Dardistan, Kashmir, Persians, Turks from the east, etc. For this reason, Sanskrit, the language of the learned in the north, was chosen at Jalandhara for the language of the sacred texts. From that time onwards, even among the Lamas of Tibet and of remoter Mongolia, it has enjoyed an artistic life, which did not, however, continue free from error. In both cases the classical form veiled the greater decay of the original doctrine. The only individual elements which we meet with are the Lama portraits. But they are persons represented, not representers. The names of the artists are wanting. The forms are foreign: foreign people had executed the most important works; even at the present day mechanical occupations are in the hands of exclusive castes that originated in a mixing of races. The result was that art was not popular, that the Indian people in the mass con- tinued indifferent to such matters. The peasant class, the core of Hinduism, continued in its primitive condition. Among primitive peoples, he who can carve a figure is by virtue of that fact a magician. What must have been the effect when the foreign artist covered buildings of quite a novel sort with decoration in a fixed style,—of hybrid creatures, etc., or found means to bring the image of the universally venerated Emancipator down from heaven! This explains why the Tibetan historian Täranätha speaks of the ancient buildings as having been erected by Yakshas (fairies) and Nagas (snake-demons). These names conceal those of the foreign artists. A similar state of things, founded on analogous facts, arose in the German middle ages. The builders of the first cathedrals were, for the most part, foreigners; the people regarded them as super- human—as in league with the Evil One. More than one architectural or plastic monument of the early middle ages has received a tradi- tional explanation which, apart from the humorous element, reminds us of the JAtaka fable related above. The fact that Greek architectural anecdotes were also directly received, belongs to literary history. REPETITION :LEADS TO: DECAY OF ART. 209 An Indian element which soon appears is, as we have noted, the Fepetition of the same forms; it is parallel with the like phenomenon in the texts; the mystic magical power of the ritual text with its repetitions,—always regarded as of great importance in India,—led to the general disintegration in later Buddhist liter- ature. The repetitions of the motifs brought about the dissolution also of Buddhist art. Naturally, it was not possible to shake off fixed, influential attri- butes and to express the character of a mythological being by a corresponding representation of the body, such as Athens attained to when at the height of its glory. Still attempts at it are not wanting; India was not so distant from it in its warm appreciation of Nature. If we consider the representations of the Nagas, and especially the Nagas as the reliefs at Amarävati (ill.8) and the paintings of Ajan/a (conf. Griffith, Ajantä, vol. I, pl. 12) show them to us, we cannot fail to see in the excessively twisted bodies at- tempts to impart to them the characteristic of the body of the snake. In spite of this, the old attribute—a snake’s hood on the neck—was naturally not to be omitted. 151. THE COFFIN OF GAUTAMA. From a stüpa at Nalä near Sanghio, excavated by Major Cole, 1883. From a photograph. In conclusion, we may append two or three further illustrations which differ somewhat from those already given. 210 ADDITIONS: COFFIN OF BUDDHA. MAHA-KASYAPA. Notice has already been directed (pp. 113, 119, 122) to a figure which appears at the feet of the dying sage in most of the repre- sentations (ill. 70-77). Since these pages were printed off, I have come upon a photo- graphofa relief(ill.ı5 1) from a stüpa at Nalä near Sanghäo.! It measures 13 inches in length by 11} high,and is quite a unique repre- sentation. The trees behind and the figure on the right with the bed on which it rests, identify the box, with three monks beyond it, as the coffin of Buddha. And, the figure at the foot, being saluted by one of the monks, as if he had just arrived, seems to support the conjecture already made, that this may be Mahä-Käsyapa, be- fore whose arrıval it was found impossible to remove the corpse for cremation.? ‘This Kasyapa was a Bräh- mana of Magadha or Bihar, and the chief survivor of the eighty principal disciples or Sthaviras. On his arııyal at. ‘Kousmara, where Gautama died, having bared his right shoulder,—it ıs said the corpse put the feet 152. MODEL SHRINE from Loriyän Tangai, in Swat out from the wrappings district. Original in Calcutta Museum. | for Kasyapa to wor- ship ; other versions say he changed the garments that enshrouded the body for others from his own store, and having replaced the cover of the coffin, the fire burst forth from the pile and consumed the 1 «Sent to Lahor Museum, Dec. 1883,— No, 31-10 in Major Cole’s Catalogue.” This is all the information I have found respecting this sculpture. 2 Conf. 8. Hardy, Man. Budh. p. 360f. ADDITIONS: KASYAPA. A BAUDDHA SHRINE. PAA AI body.! After this, Kasyapa convened the first Buddhist council for the settlement of the canon; and is reckoned as the first Patriarch. Säriputra and Maudgalyayana—the right and left hand Sthaviras, —had died before Gautama. | In the museem at Bombay | are two representations of the Nirväza scene from Marjan stüpa near Miyän Khan. ‘The best preserved is on a slab measuring 22 inches by 15, having a broad pilaster at each end. This personage there appears placing his hand against the foot of the figure of Gautama and inclining his head, as if reverencing the dead. This seems to support the pro- bability that Käsyapa is intended. Vajrapä»i stands behind him, holding the vajra between his wrist and armpit; the seated figure and tripod appear in front of the bed; and those behind it are Devas with naked busts. The sculpture represented in ill.152, came from Loriyan Tangai in the Swat district, and is in the Calcutta Museum. It measures 2 feet 9 inches in height and 15 inches across. As will be noted, it is cut quite through the slab round the central figure. It is a re- markably fine piece “of sculpture, and must have been regarded as a sort of altar. The central figure is, of course, the Buddha on the ns in the teaching attitude : his right shoulder and arm are bare, and the robe is very carefully traced out. Over his head is a sort of canopy from which hangs a garland of flowers in a double loop, descending to touch the zshnzsha,resembling a krodylos, on his head. On each side, supporting the canopy, is a Persepolitan pillar with humped bullocks on their capitals ; the base and shaft are only a slightly enriched copy of the pillars we find at Nasik in the second century A.D. On the architrave above them are animal heads and the Buddhist rail or lattice pattern. Outside the pillars sit two Bodhisattvas—probably the same as in preceding examples. — From above the architrave people (or Devas) look down, and over these is a cornice, supporting a small model of a temple at each end, in which sit two Buddhas. The central space is in two tiers,— the lower having two small figures of seated Buddhas and wor- shippers; the upper, an arched panel, contains a standing Buddha and two companions. Below the main figures is a cornice over a frieze ornamented by little figures carrying a great flower roll, such as is so common at ‘A marAvati, with a worshipping figure at each end. The stone fits into a socket in a base covered with a leaf- pattern.? Lastly, from among the many detached pieces of sculpture from the Swat districts, of some of which we have only photographs by Mr. Caddy, while the originals do not seem to have reached the Indian Museum, two more are represented (fig.153). Ihe measurements are, of course, unknown, but the head of Buddha appears to be of some size, and is a strikingly good piece of workmanship, showing the Gändhära style of art at about its best. The face is distinctly 1 Rockhill, Life of Buddha, pp. 144, 145. 2 Jour. Ind. Art and Industry, vol. VIII, p. 83. 212 ADDITIONAL SCULPTURES FROM SWAT. CONCLUSION. less Indian than usual, but dignified and calm; the wshnisha is again manipulated into a sort of Greek krodylos; and the ear-lobes, so 153. HEAD OF BUDDHA AND FRAGMENT OF SCULPTURE, from Swit. From a photograph. far as the photograph indicates, are not lengthened downwards in the usual way.! It may be compared with the illustrations Nos. 110-119, 121, 122, and 131.—J.B. The foregoing sketch of the Gändhära school has been carried as far as is possible with the scanty materials to hand: it is a pro- gramme which demands long and continuous work. The last word has not yet been said, for the treatment in detail can only be carried out in India,—and especially in the museums of Lahor, Calcutta, and Peshawar. The results of the above investigations may be summed up some- what as follows :— 1. Talent in sculptural art exists only in a limited degree among the Indian Aryans. The capacity for plastically developing perfect figures is wanting, as is also the feeling for well-proportioned composition. On the other hand a powerful poetic tendency is 1 Jour. Ind. Art and Industry, vol. VIII, p. 87. CONCLUSION. 213 evidenced, which, under the influences of tropical nature, readily borrows images from natural life, and, to the detriment of the com- position, executes these broadly, idyllically, but with a fine emphasizing of the characteristic features. The gift of observation, sharpened by speculative training, leads to the humourous depicting of situations which very happily show the marked differences between the various classes of the people, and even ventures upon religious representations ; but, notwithstanding this, the whole world of ideas remains subject to the religio-philosophic conception. The char- acter of the people wavers between sensuality and pessimism. 2. The Greek influences shown by the art of the Asoka period follow in the track of older and very energetic Persian influences. This röle of intermediary on the part of the Persian kingdom is, in a general way, characterized by Herodotos and Ktesias. 3. West Asian forms—the attribute of the thunderbolt, the so- called orientalizing of animals—afford types for Hindi gods and other mythological beings of the older school. The fabulous Indian animals mentioned by Herodotos, Ktesias, etc., belong to this category (conf. p.42ff.). The wings of the hybrid animals sometimes appear in action (see pp. 48, 53) ; sometimes as flames. 4. The Gändhära school represents a long development which begins with antique (heathen) forms and seems to end with Christian onés. The reliefs preserved are, indeed, for the most part, replicas of old models which are entirely based on Grecian composition laws, as, for example, the Bodhisattva at the gate (p. 98). In respect of style, the Gändhära school is influenced by the more ancient one; as, for example, in the Nach girl (p.111), and Persian pillars (p. 151f.). 5. Hellenic deities in the character of the times of Alexander (z.e. local divinities) are traceable in Gandhära: the god of the gate (p.95), the earth goddess (p. 98), the gods that look down and which perhaps imply a date (p.129f.). The following Greek divinities exist latent, —Zeus (p.91), Gé (p.100), Paignia (p.148), Niké (?) (p.113). AthenéPromachos is directly represented as a Greek goddess. Apollo served as a pattern for Buddha (p.164). 6. These Grecian representations have exercised a distinct in- fluence on the texts of the northern school; for example, Vajrapäni (p.g1f.), and the Mahäpathavi (p.100). Certain texts (such as the Lalita Vistara) are, so to speak, descriptions of reliefs or pictures. 7. The Buddha type, which, in China, passes as that of the king Udayana, reverts indirectly to the Gandhara type (p.170). - 8. The types of the Gändhära school (as well as the Grecian mode of composition) are still traceable in the Buddhist ecclesiasti- cal art,as well as in the Buddhist schools of Tibet, China, and Japan. 1 Palasologue, Z’art Chinois, is certainly right as to Chinese art and its so-called mythology, which offers merely schemes without a history and gives no new inter- pretation to Buddhist elements. The prince in gala costume, stiff and motionless, with the little tablet; the officer (wrestler) ; the two-sword juggler; and the lony-bearded old man in dressing-gown,—represent nearly all the national Chinese types, which always recur. 214 CONCLUSION. The iconographical texts of the canonical literature of Tibet, as also the materials accumulated in illustrated Chinese encyclo- peedias, and certain portions of the Tantra (Sanskrit) literature, will require to be worked, by the aid of the monuments, into a history of types:—in the preceding, only a sketch has been attempted. 9. In many sculptures of the Gändhära school, the pictorial element is so strongly in evidence that one might imagine that an | early school of painting had existed in Gandhära, whose extreme offshoot is represented to some extent in the Tibetan ecclesiastical paintings; for example, the nimbus (p.86), and the reliefs of “the flight of the Bodhisattva,” “the birth of Gautama’” (pp.112f., 135). Conf. in this connexion, I. W. C. Müller, Japanisches aus Fava, Feestbundel aan Dr. P. F. Veth aangeboden, S. 223, and Julien, Hiouen Thsang, tom. I, p. 110. BUDDHA TEACHING IN A VIHARA. From a wall-painting in Cave XVI at Ajanta. See Cave-Temples, p. 308. WALL PAINTING FROM Cave XVIII av Agana. Perhaps Apsaräs flying through the air. (Cave Temples, p. 310f., Mrs. Speir’s Life in Anct. India, p.370). BL BiclOG RAPHY: _ Archeological Survey of India,—Gen. Cunningham’s Reports. Archeological Survey of Western India, vols. I—V. Burgess. Archeol. 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LXIII, pt. i, pp. 35-38. John Griffiths: The Paintings in the Buddhist Cave-Temples of Ajantä, 2 vols., Lond. 1896. On the Ajantä frescoes, conf. Ind. Ant. vol. I (1872). p. 354; vol. IT, pp. 152- 153; vol. III, pp. 25-28, 269ff; vol. IV, pp. 252, 339; J.R.4As.Soe. vol. XI (1879), pp. 156-168; Ar. Sur.W. Ind. No.9; J, A. S. Ben. vol.V, pp. 557-61f. Lepel Griffin: Famous Monuments of Central India, London, 1886. F.S.Growse: Supposed Greek Sculpture at Mathura, J. As. 8. Beng. vol. XLIV, pp. 212f.; or Mathura, a District Memoir, p. 156f, Albert Grünwedel: Mythologie des Buddhismus in Tibet und der Mongolei, Leipzig, 1900, F. Hirth: Ueber fremde Einflüsse in der chinesischen Kunst, München, 1896; or Jahresber. d. geogr. Gesellsch. 1896, S. 223-288. J. Lockwood Kipling: The classical influence in the architecture of the Indus region and Afghanistan, J. R. Inst. Br. Arch, vol, I (1894), pp. 1344f. G. Kizerickij: Chotanseija drevnosti iz sobranija N.F. Petrovskago, Zap.1X, 167ff. D. Klementz, W. Radloff: Nachrichten uber die von der Kaiserl. Acad. der Wissensch. zu St. Petersburg in Jahre 1898 aus gerustete Expedition nach Turfan, Hft. L., St. Petersburg, 1899. ; Dr. Leitner; Greco-Buddhist Sculpture, As. Quart. Rev. 2d ed. vol. VII (1894), pp- 186-89. Alt- und Neu-indische Kunstgegenstände aus Prof. Leitner’s jungster Sammlung. K. K. österr. Mus. fur Kunste und Industrie; Wien, 1883. Dr, Leitner’s Greco- Buddhist Sculptures, Znd. Ant. vol. II, p. 242ff. Sylvain Levi: Notes sur les Indo-Scythes, Jour, As. 9 ser. t. VIII (1896), pp. 444- 84, and t. IX, pp. 5-42. Rev. W. Lowenthal: Account of some of the Sculptures in the Peshawar Museum, J. As. S. Ben. vol. XX XI (1862), p. 411. F.C. Maisey: Sänchi and its remains, Lond. 1892. I. P. Minayeff: Recherches sur le Bouddhisme (Ann. du Mus. Guimet), Paris, 1894. Sergius von Oldenburg: Zametki o buddijskom iskusstve, Vostochnyja Zametki; St. Petersburg, 1895. See Jour. Amer. Or, Soc. vol. XVIII, pp. 183-201. Scena iz legendy carja Asoki, Zap. IX. Tavernor Perry: The classical influence in Indian Architecture, J. R. Inst. Br. Ar. vol. I (1894), p. 147ff. Babu Rajendralala Mitra: Buddhagayä, the hermitage of Säkyamuni (Calc. 1878, The so-called Dasyus at Sanchi, Ind. Ant. vol. I, pp. 36-40. Alex. Rea: South Indian: Buddhist Antiquities: including the Stüpas of Bhatti- prölu, Gudivada and Ghantasäla, and other ancient sites in the Krishna District; Madras 1894. Ritter: Die Stupas (Topes) oder die architektonischen Denkmale an der indo- baktrischen Königstrasse und die Kolosse von Banıiyan, Berlin, 1838, 3 218 BIBLIOGRAPHY. Emile Senart: Notes d’Epigraphie Indienne, Jo. As.—especially 3, De quelques monuments indo-bactriennes, J. As. 8me ser. t. XV, pp. 113-163; and 7, Deux épigraphes du Svat, 9me ser. t. XIII, pp. 526-37, 555. R. Sewell: Report on the Amarävati tope, 1877. See Ind. Ant. vol.X, p.56. Early Buddhist symbolism, J. R. As. Soc. N.S. vol. XVIII, p. 364ff. Some Buddhist bronzes and relics, J.R.A.S. 1895, pp. 617-62. William Simpson: Buddhist Architecture—Jellalabad, 77. R. Inst. Br. Arch., 1879-80, pp. 37-64; Indian Architecture, ib. 1861-2, pp. 165-178. Classical In- fluence in the Architecture of the Indus region and Afghanistan, Jo. R. I. B. A. (1894), pp. 93-112, 191ff. The Buddhist Caves of Afghanistan, J. R, As. S.N-S. vol. XIV, pp. 319-331. Some suggestions of origin in Indian architecture, ib. vol. XX, pp. 49-71. The Buddhist Praying-Wheel (Lond. 1896). Wm. F. Sinclair: Architecture in India, J.R.As.S. N.S. vol. XX, pp. 272-76. Vincent A. Smith: Greco-Roman influence on the civilization of ancient India, J. As. S. Ben. vol. LVILII, pt. i, pp. 107-198; vol. LXI, pp. 50-76; vol. LXII, pp. 84-87. The date of the Greco-Buddhist Pedestal from Hashtnagar, Ind. Ant. vol. XXI, p. 166f.; conf. Bühler, 7, vol. XX, p. 394. V. A. Smith and W. Hoey: Ancient Buddhist statuettes, &c., J. As. S. Ben. vol. LXIV, pt.i, pp. 155-62. R. Phené Spiers: Classical influence in Indian architecture, J. R. Inst. Br. Arch. 1894, p. 150ff. ; M. Aurel Stein: Zoroastrian deities on Indo-Scythian coins, /nd. Ant. vol. XVII, pp. 89-97. Detailed Report of an Archeological Tour with the Buner Field- Force, Lahor 1898; conf. Ind. Ant. vol. XX VITI. M. G. Talbot: The Rock-caves and Statues of Bamian, J. R. As. 8. N.S. vol. XVIII, pp. 323ff. N. W. Thomas: Ona pictorial representation of the Wheel of Life from Japan,— Mind, Jan. 1901. Dr. L. A. Waddell: Gra&co-Buddhist Sculptures in Swit, Imp. As. Quart. Rev. Jan. 1896; conf, Actes Or. Cong. Paris, sec. i, pp. 245-7. The Indian Buddhist cult of Avalokita and his consort Tara, J. R.A.S. 1894, pp. 51ff. Buddha’s Secret from a 6th century pictorial commentary and Tibetan tradition, 7d. pp. 367ff. The Buddhism of Tibet, Lond. 1895. S.J. Warren: Two bas-reliefs of the Stipa of Bharhut, Leiden 1890. H.H. Wilson: Ariana Antiqua, London 1841. - BRONZE FIGURE FROM KHOTAN, inthecollection of N.F. Petrovskiy, (Globus, 3 Feb. 1900). INDEX; A. ' Abdagases, King, 78. Abü, Mount, 29. abhayapäni mudrä, 192. abhinishkramana, or flight of Gautama from home, 130; date 131. acacia sirisa, 181n. Achemenides, see Cyrus, Darius, Arta- xerxes, 4, 7, 8,9; first universal king- dom, 158; inscriptions of the A. 16; style of their buildings, 2, 17, 81. Adam’s Peak or Sumanaktiéa, 72. Adibuddha, 198. Adityavarma, Javanese king, 199. Adraistoi, Skt. Aräshira, 8. seons of the Gnostics, 195. Ahmadäbäd, 29. Ahriman of the Persians, 39. Airavata, Indra’s elephant, 38. Ajanti, Cave-temples, 22f.; Paintings, 27, 97, 136, 139, 157, 188n.; Nagas with twisted bodies, 44, 45, 209; Mära’s at- tack on Buddha, 97; representation of the Nirvana, 118, 120, 198n.; Garudas from A. 51; tribute-bearers, 136; Ava- lokitesvara, 193. Ajätasatru, Pali: Ajätasattu, king of Rä- jagriha, 4, 15, 54. Ajita, Maitreya, 183, 184. Akäsagarbha bodhisattva, 184, 185, 196. Akshobhya, Dhyänibuddha of Vajrapäni, 195. Alabaster, C., 161n., 185n. Alawaka Yaksha, 45. Allakappa town, 15. Alexander the Great, 4, 10, 15, 76, 78. Ali Masjid stüpa, 152, Amarävati stüpa and railings, 22, 26, 27; Buddha appears, 174, 175; standing on a lotus, 199; the nimbus, 86; the vajra-bearer, 175; garland-bearers, 148f., 156; early Indian throne- seats. 28, 29, 53; departure of the Bodhisattva at A. 103; Maya, 112; Käsyapa legend, 128; rosettes, 149 ; erotic figures, 157; the seven jewels. 159; attempt to express the deity in bodily form, 209. amatam padam (Pali), 179. Ambatthu Brahmana, 90. Ameshaspends, Persian archangels, 38. Amitäbha, conf. Sukhävati, 183; Persian elements in the cult of A. 195f.; Dhyä- nibuddha of Padmapfni, 193, 195, 196, 201; A.’s paradise, 170, 176, 195; A.in the crown of Padmapäni, 193, 196. Amitäyus, 204n,, 205. Amoghasiddha, Dhyänibuddha of Visva- päni, 52, 195. Amrita, 193, 194. Ananda, artist of a relief at Säüchl, 25n. Ananda, favourite disciple of Buddha, 56, 114, 118, 122, 182 Ananta cave-temple, 41, Anäthapindada, 46. Anavamä river, Pali: Anomä, 14. Ancyra temple, 153. andhakdra (Skt. Pali), 199. angavastram (Skt.), 35. angiyd (Hindi), 35. Aniruddha, 122. anjali, 136n. anjana (Skt. Pali) “eye-salve,’’ 161. Anomä, see Anavamaä. Antiochos Theos, 77. Anurädhapura, 74. anuvyanjana-lakshanas, Buddha, 161. Apaläla Näga, 43. Aphrodite, 40, 57. Apollo, 16, 137n, 164-166, 213. Apollonius of Tyana, 79n. Aquee Solis, Bath, 93. Arakhosia, Harahvati, Sarasvati, 10, 105. aram (Tamil) 32n. Aräshtra, 8. Araväla Näga, 77. architectural elements, 129, 151f. arhat (Skt.) 201. Aristeas, 34, 206n. Ardschi Bordschi Chan, 53n. Arnold (Sir E.) 100n. 125n: Arsakes, Parthian king, 4. Artaxerxes Mnemon, 58. Arya: the A.in the Panjab, 6-8, 31; on the Ganges, 10; mythology of the A.7; stone buildings, gold ornaments, 8; Indian A and Iranians, 8, 15; first idea .of universal rule, 158. dsana, seat, throne, 192. Asafiga, a monk, 190. marks of the 220 ascetics, 12, 13, 61, 95, 146; conf. Käsyapa, , Uruvilvä, Brähmana. Ashidha, Pali: Asälha, 131. ashtänge (Skt.) 64. Asita Rishi, 13, 139, 155. Asoka, Pali: Asoka, conf. Piydassi, Maur- ya, Mahinda; as prince at Vessanagara, 26; Chakravartti, 158, 159; recognised Buddhism, 15f. 77; his buildings and their style (cf. Barähat) 3, 4, 17, 22, 23, 26, 33, 37, 66, 81, 87, 105, 115, 123, 137, 151; no nimbus, 86; his inscriptions, 16; intercourse with Greek princes, 77 ; Greek influences in the style of his buildings, conf. Hippocampus, Makara,. Centaur, 17, 52-53, 57; railing at Gaya, 23, 52, 53, 57; chapel round the Bodhi tree, 69; intercourse with Tissa, king of Ceylon, 25, 26, 70. Assyrians,—barbarities of this people, 16; their art, 19; gods placed upon their attributes, 57; cherubim, 50. Asuras, 43. Athené, 82, 85, 213. Athens, 9, 166. Atlantes, 135, 155. dtman, 12. » Aurangäbäd rock-temples, 194. aureole, see nimbus, 176. Avalokitesvara bodhisattva, see Padma- pani,—183, 184, 193, 194n. 205; eleven- headed A. 203. Avidürenidäna, see Jätaka, 13, 87, 96, 100, 102n. 159, 179. aviyanga, girdle, 41. Azes, 78. B Bacchanalian representation, 149. Bagh caves, 22, 27,198. Bagistän, Behistun, 16. bahangi, 65, 73. Baktrians, see Indoskythians, Gandhära, Yueh-chi, 4, 76, 166. Bali, 31. balikammam kar (Pali) 11. Ball, V. 51. Bämiyän, colossi, 83, 198. Banaras, see Bäränast. Barähat, Bharhut, stone rail and gates, 22, 23, 44, 67n.; no figure of Buddha at B. 68, 157; the so-called Kinnarajdtaka, 47, 48; inscriptions, 23, 30n. 58, 69; Hindü type, 34; dormer windows, 151; sculptures, 23, 141; gods, 40, 41, 42, 137; the bodhi tree, 69. Bäränasi (Skt. and Pali) mod. ‘ Benares,’ Hind. Banaras, scene of the jätakas, 54, 55; Buddha’s sermon at B. 67n. 88, 89, ~ 143-144, 187. Barlaam, 136n. Bayley (Sir E. Clive) 82, 83n. 216. Beal (Rev. $.) 44n.-64n. 68n. 79n. 170n. 204, 216. INDEX. Bedsä, 22. Behistun, see Bagistän. Bemävata Yakkha, 45. Bengal, 174; see Brahmasamaj. Ben-ten, 105, 148n. Besnagar, 26. Bhadrä, 143. Bhagavato Sakamunino bodho, 69. Bhagwänläl Indraji, 191n. 216. Bhäjä, 22, 41. bhämandala, prabhämandala, aureole, 86, 157. Bharhut, see Barähat. bhikshus, 14, 114. Bhilsä, see Sdfichi, Vidisä, 22, 24. Bhopäl, 24. Bhümidevi, 37n. bhümisparsa mudrd, 172. Bhütesar, 41n. bignonia suaveolens, 181n. Bihär, caves, 22. bimba fruit, 161. Bimbisära, 4, 68. Bindusära, 4, 15. Bingara, 105. Bloch (Dr. Th.) 141n. 155n. 173n. 216. Blonay (G. de) 93n. bodhi, 146, 181. bodhidruma, bodhi-tree, 14, 23, 26, 35, 69, 70, 74, 92, 92, 97, 100, 180. Bodhisattva, Päli: bodhisatta, 23, 35, 61, 79, 134, 158, 173, 176, 181-185, 205, 211; B. in jätaka, 54f.; leaves heaven, 61; his dwelling, 105, 125; explanation of his words, 180; representations of B. 8, 4, 182ff. especially, 191-199; Vajra- pani, 91, 93, 94; their Saktis, 105; see Maitreya, Mahästhänapräpta, Manjusri, Vajrapini, Padmapäni. Borazan Buddha figures, 174n. 218. Boro Budur, 124, 167, 193. Börpvs, 34n. Bowring (Sir J.) 185n. brahman, world-soul, 12. Brahma, representations, 87, 95n. 103, 112, 125,139; voice of B. 161. Brahmadatta, 54. Brahmaloka, 195. R Brähmana, the highest caste of Aryas, 10ff.; representation of B. at Safichi, see ash- tänga, Käsyapa, jatd, Asita, 61-66, 139; representation of B. in Gandhära, 75, 115, 122, 127, 140, 141, 155; Brähmana philosophy, 9n. 12, 14; converted by Buddha, 14; magicians, 54; B. type for Brahma. 87. Brahmanic art, In. 42, 147. Brähmani kite, 49n. Brahmanism, revival of, 76, 80, 81, 175. Brahmasamäj, 179. Buddha, see Gautama, Siddhartha, Maya, Prajäpatt, Nirvana, &c., the ‘ Enlight- ened, 1, 146; legends of his youth, INDEX. flight, 13ff. 129f. 139; about contem- porary with Sokrates, 9; converts the Käsyapas, 61ff. 126ff.; B. and the Cha- kravartti, 90, 159; ‘the great being,’ see Mahäpurusha, 159ff., pre-existence —see Jätaka, Bodhisattva; B. and the Nagas, 43ff. 49, 94, 106; see Adibuddha, Mänushibuddha, Dhyänibuddha; no figure of B. at Barähat, Gayä, Säüchi; B. representations, 3, 68, 86, 87, 89f. 92, 116, 130f. 152f. 157, 163, 167n. see Udayana, Prasenajit; stories from his previous existences, 37; Mära’s army and B., 94, see Nirväna, 114, 118ff. 162- 181, 189, 190, 195-197, 199; B.’s coffin, 209, 210; figure used decoratively, 152- 154; lakshanas, 160f.; B. Maitreya, 186ff., “fat-bellied Buddha,’ 147. Buddhagaya, see Gayä, 14, 52. Buddhaghosa, 5, 90n. buddhahalähala, 61. Buddhapäda, 71, 72, 74. Buddhapantheon von Nippon, 3n. Buddhism, 67n.; first universal religion, 9; extension, 3, 23; southern and northern schools, see Asoka, Räjagriha, &c. Bühler (Dr. G.) 13n. 19n. 25n. 216. bum-pa (Tib.) and djam-ba, 186. Bunyiu Nanjio, 196n. Burgess (Jas.) 18n. 20n. 27, 36, 37n. 38, 43n. 45n. 47, 72n. 79n. 83n. 90n. 95n. 96n. 103n. 118n. 122n. 125, 131n. 133, 136, 137, 139-146, 149-150, 152-156, 179n. 182-184, 192, 194, 196, "202-203, 205. Burma, Burmese, 20, 28, 71, 77, 129, 175. Burnouf (E.) 39n. 46n. 161n. Byams-pa (Tib.) see Maitreya, 134, 181, 181, 186, 187. Byzantine elements in Gändhära art, 152. E; Caracalla’s baths, 153. centaur, see Tiryagyoni, 18n. 52. Ceylon, see Tissa, Anurädhapura, Véddis, 2, 26, 70, 72, 80. Chaddanta elephant, 157. - Chaitya, 20, 21. chakra, Pali: chakka; chakkam vatteti, 158. Chakravika Naga, 43. Chakraväla, 158. Chakravartti, 158, 159. Chälukya, 29. . Chanda Yakkhini, 41, 45, 111. Chandra, the moon, 130. Chandragupta, 4, 15, 76, 158. Chandrasena, Bäbt, 178. Chang-an-fu, 168, 169. Changcha-Hutuktu, 3n. 52, 56, 57. chärpdi, 118. 22° Chaturmahäräjas or . Chaturmaharajika gods, 61, 136, 147. chauri, 60. chelukkhepa, 35. cherub, 50. Chetiyagiri, 26. Chhanna or Chhandaka, 13, 14, 103, 128, 155. chhatra, 155. Chhorten (Tib. mch‘od-rten), 20n. Chhos-hkhor (Ch‘os-k‘or) 151. chihna, or cognizance, 193, 194n. chimeera, 18. China, 3, 27, 57, 68, 79, 157, 168, 170, 175, 201, 204, 205 [see Han, Ming-ti, Thien- ku, Mahiiyana, Kuan-yin, P‘ai-lu, Ki- lin]; Ch. pilgrims, 79, 160, 190, see Fah-hian, Hiuen-thsang,Sung-yun; Ch. mythology, 213n. Christian art, 42, 68, 135. chronology, 4-6. Chulakoka devata, 111. Chunda, 114. clay-seal, 180. coffin of Buddha, 209, 210. coin-types, 138. ; Cole (Maj. H. H.) 83n. 89n. 94, 109, 118, 125, 138, 130, 186, 216. Copleston (Bp.) 18n. 114n. Corean dog, 51. Corinthian pillars, 139, 151, 152. cuneiform inscriptions, 82. Cunningham (Sir A.) 18n. 25, 40n, 4ln. 45n. 57n. 69, 78n. 83, 137, 216. Curtius, 41n. 216. cymbals (¢dlas) 129. Cyrus, 4, 7, 158. D dägaba (Sinhalese) 20, 21, 185. Dahala, 77. Däkini, 102n. Dakshinapatha, Dekhan, 6, 27. Dalai-lama, 193, 205. Dardistän, 208. Darghabäzu, 162. Darius, Old Pers. Darayavaush, 4, 9, 10, 16, 158. Daulatäbäd, 34. Davids (T. H. Rhys) 13n. 78n. 91n. 92n. Deane (Major H. A.) 103, 216. Dehli, Hind. Dilli,—pillar at, 17, 22. Demetrios, 101, 138. demi-gods, 43. demons, dwarfs, 35; see Mara. Des Guignes, 181n. deus ex machina, 90. Devas, 7, 39, 48, 60; devamanussä, 42. Devadatta, 54-56, 88, 89. Devadäsi, 113n. Devaloka, 60, 195; see Suddhaväsa. devaputra, Päli: devaputta, 39. devatä, 48, 120. 222 devi, 73. dhammachakkam pavattesi, 151, Dhamnär, 22. Dhanada, Dhanapati,—Kubera, 136. Dharma, Päli: dhamma, the truth or ritual, Buddhr’s teaching, 181 ; person- ified, 204n. 205; Dh. symbol of the early period, 19, 20, 67n. 128; see Bärä- nasi, Mrigadäva. Dharmachakra, Päli:dhammachakka, 67n. 74, 151, 159; dharmachakramudrä, 185, 187, 188n. 189, 193n.; Dharmachakra Sütra, 144. Dharmachärin, 130. Dharmapradipikd, 161. dhatu, dhätugarbha, 20. dhöti (Hind.) 35, 186. Dhritaräshira, 36n. 47n. 136. dhydna, 195, 200, 201. dhydnamudrd, 193n. 194, 196. Dhyänibodhisattvas, 195. Dhyänibuddhas, 52, 195, 197. Diamond throne (vajrdsana) 14. Diadochs, 166. Dionysos, 78. Dipankara Buddha, 142, 143. Dirgabähu, 162. Divydvädana, 68. rdo-rje (Tibetan), vajra, 91. Drävida style, 53, 151. dräkshä, grapes, 34n. Drona, 15. Dulva, 46. Duruy Herzberg, 101n, 136n, 137n. dvare adhivatthddevatd, door god, 46, 95. dwärapdlas, 46. E. Ehrenreich, 9n. Elapätra Naga, 43, 94. Elliot (Sir W.) 26. Elüra, 22, 52, 95, 196, 197. emanation, 195. Eros, 47, 88, 95, 213; erotic figures, 149. Etruscan art, 85. Euhemerism, 79. Eukratides, 77. Euthydemos, 138. Evans (E. P.) 41n. Fah-hian, 5, 79, 81, 91, 171, 190. Fausböll (V.), 53n. Fell (Capt. E.), 25. Fergusson (Jas.), 17n. 20n. 21n. 23n. 25, 27n. 41n. 83, 112, 128, 149, 153, 159n. ficus religiosa, 161, 181n.; F. glomerata and F. indica, 181n. Foism, 175. Foucaux (Ed.), 100n. Foucher (A.), 93, 137n. 147, 177n. 193n. Fravashis, Fervers, 195. “ Gabet (M,), 81n. INDEX. Gaia or Gé, 100, 213; see Mahiprithvi. Gallic divinities, 137n. gandhaküti, 46. Gandhära (Old Pers.) in Herodotos, Gan- darioi, subject to the Achsmenides, 10, 75, 82; under the Indo-skythians, 79; proper designation for the sculptures instead of Gra&co-Buddhist, &c. 82; G. monasteries, 22, 77, 108, 123. Gändhära school (Gändhära is the adj. from Gandhära) 22f. 27,75, 84, 93, 163ff.; in- fluence on Indian art, 156; painting, 27, 147, 169. Gandharya, 43, 47, 136. Ganesa, Vinäyaka, 183. Gangä, river goddess, 45. Gangita Yaksha, 45. Ganymede, 108, 110. garbha, 20, 155. garlands, 148. Gardner (P.), 86n. 138, 217. Garuda, 7, 43, 48-52, 57, 58, 93, 94, 108- 110, 123, 135. Garutmant, 49. Gautama, Päli: Gotama, 9, 13, 14, 23, 37, 60, 62, 64, 66, 68, 125, 128-131, 162, 179, and see under Buddha. Gaya, see Asoka, Burma; 14, 22, 23, 41, 43, 52, 53, 68, 69, 73, 74, 97, 178. Ge, see Gaia. German mytholoey, 7. ghunghru (Hindi), 111. giganto-machia, 134. Girnär, 16n. Gnostics, 195. Goblet d’Alviella, 19n. 138n. 217 Gondopharas, 5, 78, 84. Graco-Baktrian kingdom, 42, 76, 77. Greeco-Buddhist, 22, 75. Greeculi, 93. grape vine, 34, 150. Greek influence, 57, 213. Griffin, Gryps, or Gryphus, 50. Griffiths (Jo.), 27, 97, 1391. 209, 217. Growse (F. $.), 34n. 217. Gubernatis (A. de), 49n. Gupta, 5, 80; coins, 138n. Guru, 89. H. Hampel, 93n. Han dynasty, 79. hansa, 161. Hardy (Sp.), 45n. 54n. 62n. 161n. 210n. Harinegamesi, 52. Häriti, 103-105. Hazard, 168. Heliokles, 77. Helios, 165. Hellenes, 8, 9, 86, 165; see Greek. Herakles, Hercules, 82, 99, Hermaios, 78. Hermes, 137n. INDEX. Herodotos, 10, 34, 75, 82, 206, 213. Hesus, 93. Hettner (F.), 101n. hi-ki-la, 114. Himälaya, 6. Hinayäna, 182, 191. Hindhu, 10, 82. Hindi, 32, 35. Hindü, 33, 35, 36, 160, 162, 168, 182; H. type, 35, 86, 103; Hinduism, 80; H. artists, 100; mythology, 182. Hindustän, 6, 8. Hippocampi, 57, 81. Hirth (F.) 34n. 168, 175n. 217. Hiuen Thsang, 68, 79n. 80, 81, 85, 91, 171, 214. Hoffmann, 124, 170n. 186n. Hokusai, 51. Holi, 95n. Ho-shang, 147, 190n., Ho-tei, 147n. Hti (Burmese), 20. Huc (M.), 81n. Hultzsch (E.), 60n. 69n. Huth (G.), 171n. Indo-China, 8; see Burma, Siam. Indo-Hellenic, 82. Indo-corinthian, 152. Indo-Skythians, 76, 79, 137, 138, 208; see Kanishka, Yueh-chi. Indhyädri, 27. Indra, see Sakra, 7, 38, 87, 90, 91, 94, 95, 140-142. Indrasaila, 140. Indus, 10. Tranians, see Achemenides, Persians, 6, 8; Masdayasnians, 81, 158, 190, 195. Isipatana or Sarnäth, 22, 143-145. Isläm, 175. Issidones, 206. I-tsing, 6. Jaina mythology, In. 29, 43n. 181n.; co- lossi, 198n. Jälandhara, 5, 79, 80, 100, 208. Jamälgarhi, 23, 82, 86, 133, 150, 152, 154. Jam-ba, see Byams-pa. Jamnä (Skt, Yamuna), 45. Japan, 3, 6, 9, 27, SO, 93n. 99, 137, 157, 168, 169n. 170, 208, 213; see Ten-gu, Hokusai, Amitäbha, Tori-i, Ten-nio, Onis, Kariobinga, Ho-shang, Ho-tei. Jatä, 61, 87. Jätaka, see Avidirenidana, 37, 38, 46, 53, 60, 100, 142, 181. Java, 31, 80, 124, 199, 200, 208. jhana, Pali: dhyäna, 198, Ji-koku,— Dhritaräshira, 136n. Jinns, 102n. Johnson (Capt.), 25. Julg (B.), 53n. Jupiter, 91, 28 Fe. Käbul, 6, 10, 79 ;—grapes, 34. Kadam-kuki Khel, 190, 191. kadamba, 32. kädölei. (Tamil), 33n. Kadphises, 77. Käfarkoi, 120, 121. kakubha, 32. Kakusanda, see Krakuchchhanda, 74, 181, 188, 195. Kalpa, 195. Kalpavriksha, 31. Käma or Smara, 57, 95. Kämadevalokas, 38, 39. Kämaloka, 94, 95. kamandalu, 139. Kämävachara, 60, 61. Kamboja, 80, 175. kamma (Skt. karma), 181. kammavdehä (Pali), 107. Kampeng Pet, 179. Kanakamuni, Pali: Konägamana, 74, 181, 188, 195. kahchukint, 129. Kanheri, 22, 108, 143. Kanishka, 5, 78, 79. Kanjur (Tibet.) bsKah-hgyur, 3. Kanthaka, 95, 102, 108, 128, 155. Känva, 77. Kapilavastu, Päli: Kapillavatthu, 13, 15. karanphil (Hind.), 111. kari (Tamil), curry, 114. Kariöbinga, 49. Kärle, 22. Karyanda, 10. Kasawara, K. 159n. Kashmir, 77,79. Käfyapa, Pali: Kassapa, see Uruvilvä, a Brähmana, 62, 63, 65-69, 114, 115, 119, 122, 126-128, 140, 182, 189n. 210. Käsyapa Buddha, Gautama’s predecessor, 74, 181, 188-190, 192, 195. Katak, 22. Kausambi, 149. kävya, 66. keidappu (Malayäl.), 32. keorä (Mar.), Skt.: ketaki, Hind.: ketki, 32. Kern (H.), 15n. kesara, 32. Khandesh, 27. Khotan, 138n. 169n. Khyung: K‘yun,—Garuda, 52; K‘yun- shog-chan, 94n. ki-lin, 19n. Kin-kan, 92n. Kimpurusha, 43n. 47n. Kinnaras, Kinnaris, 18, 43. 47, 48, 50; Kinnarajätaka, 47. Kipling (J. L.), 103n. 150, 217. Kishimojin, Häriti, 105. Kodya, Koliya, 13. 224 Kohistän, 75. Kömoka (Jap.) Virtipiksha, 136n. Konägamana, see Kanakamuni. Korea, 6, 80, 168; K. dog, 51. Kosala, 10, 15, 68n. 69, 171. Krakuchchhanda, see Kakusanda, 181, 188, 195. | 5Kra-shis-/hun-po, 205. Kriophoros, 135-136. Krishnä river, 26. Krishna=Mära, 39. krobylos, 86, 87. 115, 211, 212. Ktesias, 51, 58, 213. Kuan-yin, 201, 204. Kubera or Kuvera, 40n. 41, 45, 136, 137. Kubhä river, 75. Kuhn (E.) 81. Kuki-Ryüichi, In. Kumbhändas, 136. Kural, 40. Kurumbars, 53. Küshan tribe, 77, 78. Kusinagara, Pali: Kusinärä, 15, 115, 119, 122, 144n. 210, 211. ds Lahor, 83, 95, 96, 98, 105, 106, 145, 146, 212. lakshanas, 161, 162. Lakshmi. 37n. 39, 183. Lalitavajra, 56. Lalita-Vistara, 93, 101, 131n. 161, 179, 213. Lalitavyüha, 130. Lama, Tib. ALa-ma, ‘superior,’ conf. Pal- dan-ye-she, Lalitavajra, 56, 117, 193, 205-207. Lamaism, 35, 57, 68, 80, 105, 175, 185, 187. Laos, 175. Lassen (C.) 10n.-58n. 78n. Lät, 20, 22, 26. Lateran museum, see Kriophoros, Sopho- kles, 135, 189. Le Bon (A.) 23n. Leitner (Dr.) 83n. 217. Leochares, 108, 109. Lha-sa, 92n. Lokapäla-devatä, 40n. 137, 138, 147, 190n. Longimanus, 162. Loriyän-Tangai, 23, 102, 107, 119, 120, 131, 132, 140, 141n. 148, 153, 154, 156, 202, 205, 210, 211. lotä (Hind.) 59, 63, 127. lotus, 19, see Padma, Nelumbium. Lumbini, 111, 113, 125, 143n. 155. M: Macedonian empire, 9,158. Mackenzie (Col: ©.) 26. Maddock (Sir H.) 25. Madurä, 40, 53, INDEX. Magadha, 10, 14, 15, 68, 76, 158. Magadhi, see Pali, 80. Maghava—Sakra, 38. Mahäpähu, 162. Mahäbhinishkramana, 101, 103. Mahäbodhi, 57n. Mahäbrahmä, 38, 39; Mahäkatyäyana, 94n. Mahämati, Maäjusri, 184. Mahäpadhäna sutta, 161. Mahäparinirvära, 117, 119; see Nirvana, Mahäprthivi, Päli: Mahipathavi; see Gaia, 100, 128, 213. Mahäpurusha, Päli: Mahäpurisa, 161, Mahäräjas, see Chaturmaharajas, 43, 146. Mahästhänapräpta, Mahästbämn, 183-185, 193n. 194n. 195, 196n. 205. Mahaut, Mahäwat, 60, 72, 73, Mahdvansa, 26, 77, 181. Mahäyäna, 80, 147, 182, 190, 199, 205. Mahinda, Skt. Mahendra, 26, 70, 74. Mahorigas, 43. Maidari (Mong.), Maitreya, 186. Maisey (Col. F.C.) 25, 217. Maitreya, Päli: Metteyya, Tib. Byams-pa, 5, 61, 79, 81, 146, 147n. 181, 182, 185- 193, 195, 196n. 197n. 198, 205; see Miroku, Miryek. Majjhantika, Skt. Madhyäntika, 77. Makara, dolphin, 41, 53, 57, 73, 81, 95. Malabar, 32, 36. Mäläbhäri, 39, Malla, 15, 122. Mandärava, 115, 120. mangalakaläsa, 186, 192. Mani, Manich&ism, 5, 81. Manikyäla, 22, 82. Maäjusri, Manjughosha; see Sarasvati, Mahayana, Adityavarmä, 57, 105, 182- 185, 196n. 199-201, 203, 204. Manu, 40n. Mänushibuddha, 195. Mara, see Vasavarti, Namuchi, Päpiyän, Devadatta, Sakra, 14, 38, 39, 61, 82, 88-90, 92, 94-97, 100, 103, 159; Mara- käyikas, 39. Marathi, 32. Maravatti, 32. Marco Polo, 15, 71n. Mardonios, 10. Mars, 93. Mausdayasnian, 195. Masson (C.) 82. Mätali, 38. Mathura, 22, 23, 34, Aln. 82, 141-142, 174. Matsyanäri, 45, 81. Maudgalyäyana, 182, 183, 211. Maues, 78. Maurya, Päli: Mora, see mayura, 15, 70, 158, see Brahmä. 159, INDEX. Maya, 13, 60, 109, 110-113, 117, 125, 135, 139, 155. mayura, Pili: mora, peacock, ensign of the Maurya-dynasty, 15, 70. Medes, 9, 10. Megabasos, 162. Megasthenes, 4, 5, 34, 76, 82. Megha or Sumedha, 143. Menandros, see Milinda, 5, 77, 78. Mercury, 93. Meru, 43, 136. Mihirakula, 80. Milinda, Milinda-panha, 54n. 78. mimusops elengi, 32n. Minayeff (I. P.) 36n. 40n. 217. Minäkshi, 40. Ming-ti, 79. Miroku, Maitreya, 186n. Miryek, Maitreya, 198n. miscellaneous sculptures, 138-147, 149-150, 152-156, 209-212. Mogas or Maues, 84n. Mongolia, 9, 31, 208; see ojir, Maidari. Mora, see Maurya, mayura, 158. mridvi, mridvikd, 34n. Mrigadäva, see Särnätha, 143. Muchilinda Näga, 43; tree, 90. mudrd, 172, 177, 187, 189, 192-194, 196. Muhammadans, 29. Mukammad Nari, 128, 130, 135, 174, 188. mukuta, 184, 203. Müller (F. W. C.) 52n. 214. mundu (Tamil) 35. Musagetes, see Apollo. Mya-ngan-’das (‘libet.) see Nirvana, 123. N. Nach girls, 111, 112, 213. Naga, Nagi, Nägakanyä, 29, 41-46, 50, 57, 93, 94, 106-108, 110, 120, 123, 131, 133n. 136, 208, 209; N. in the hand, 136n. Nägabhtıshana, Naganitha—Siva, 43. Nägananda, 49n. 108. Nagarjuna, 5, 26. Nagy Szent Miklös, 93n. Naigameya, 52. Nairafijand, 64. nakula, Tibet. neu-le, Er Nala, 210. Nalagiri, 54. Nalanda, 53, 175. Namuchi, 39. Nanduka Yakkha, 45. nandyävarta, 162. Näraka, 46. Narayana Swimi, 179n. Nar-thang, 3n. 193n. Nasik, 5, 22, 45, 73, 211. Natthu, 23, 89, 111, 118, 121, 122, 128, 186. nauclea kadamba, 32n. Nayyarchchis, 32, 36. nelumbium, 19, 162; see padma, 225 Nemezean lion, 82. Nepal, 20n. 52, 80, 155, 175, 178, 186-187, 199. Nga-ri-Khor-sum, 133, 134. Nicodemus, gospel of, — 201n. Nike, 112, 113, 153, 213. nimbus, 86, 95. Nimmänarati, Skt. Nirmänarati, 61. Ni-6, 95n. Nippon, 124. Nirvana, 15, 39, 43, 68, 89, 113ff. 118n. 119-124, 144, 160, 172, 181, 198, 207. Northcote (Spencer) 135. Nyagrodha, ficus Indica, 181n. O. ojir, 91n. Oldenberg (H.) 9n. 13n. 67n. Oldenburg (S. von) 174n. 187n. 192, 193, 194, 217. Oldfield (H. A.) 105n. Onis, 99. I; padah, 67. pädapitha, 129. padma, lotus, 19. Padmanäbha, Vishzu, 183. Padmapini, 184, 191n. 192-195, 199, 201, 203-205 ; see Avalokitesvara. Padmasambhava, 92n. padmdsana, 108, 165, 167, 172, 194, 203, 205, 211. ’ P'ags-skyes-po, Skt. Virüdhaka, 138. Paignia, 148-150, 213. p‘ai-lu, or p‘ai-fang, 21. Pal-dän-ye-she, dPal-/dan-ye-shes, 205. Paleologue, 213n. Päli or Mägadhi, 7, 10, 13-15, 20, 39, 62, 70, 79-80, 158, 159, 181, 195, 208. Palimbothra, PA Waliputra, 76. Palmyra, 5. pandanus odoratissimus. 32n. Pafichasikha, 141, 142. Pafichika, 104n. Pander, 187n. panidim kar (Pali) 181. Panjab, 6, 7, 8, 11, 79, 208. Pannagas, Nigas, An. pdnsdla, 140. Päpiyän, see Mära, 39. Paraclete, 81. Paranimmitavassatti, Skt. Paranirmata- vasivartin, name of a heaven, 39, 61. parinirväna, see Nirvana, 4. parna, 48. Parsi, 190. Pärsvanätha, 52. patali, —bignonia suaveolens, 181n. Pazaliputra, Gr. Palimbothra, modern Pat- ni, 76, 77, 82; see Megasthenes, Asoka. patera, 126, 128. Pätnä, 76, 82. 226 patra, alms-bowl, 126, 128, 133n. 134, 146. Pävä, 15. Peru caves, 197n. Pekin, 57, 186, 187. pentaptera arjuna, 32n. Pergamon, 134, 135. Persepolis, 17. Persians, 9, 10, 21-22, 151, 190, 195, 213; Persian style, 16-17; see Achzemenian, Zoroastrian ; 93n. Peshäwar. Purushapura, 83, 151, 212; see Jamälgarhi, Takht-i-Bähi. Pfungst (A.) 133n. pigmies, 35, 58. Pippala—ficus religiosa, 181n. Pisuna=Mära, 39. i Pitimahi=—Brahma, 39. Piyadassi (Päli), Skt. Priyadarsi; see ‘Agoka, 15, 16. Platxa, 10. Plato, 9. Plutarch, 78. Pozdneev, 67n. Prabhämandala, see bhimandala, 86. pradakshina, 21. Prajäpati, 13, 111, 125, 135. Prajääka, 104. Prajüäparamitä, 204. P‘ra K‘odom, 179. Präkrit, old Indian popular dialect, 208. Prasenajit, Päli: Pasenadi, 68n. 69, 171. Prasioi (Gr.), Prächyä, “ the easterns,” 15, 76. Priene, 153. Prithivi, Pali: 98, 101. Proikonnésos, 34, 206n. Ptolemy Philadelphos, 77. pijd, 10, 11. Pulumäyi, 26. pundarika, 181n. Purnika Yakkha, 45. Purushapura, Peshäwar, 76n. 83. Pushya, 131. P‘ya Tak, 102, 103. Pythagoras, 9. Pathavi, see Mahäprithivi, By, Rähula, 13, 14, 95; Rähulämätä, 13. Räjagaha, Skt. Räjagrıha, 14, 15, 104. Raja Pasenaji Kosalo, 69. Räjendraläla Mitra, 18n. 52, 69n. 97, 217. Rämagräma, 15. Ramanfiadesa, 197n. Räni-ka nür cave, Orissa, 23. Ratnapini Bodhisattva, 184, 195. Ratnasambhava, 184, 195. ‘pat, 34n. Rigveda, 7, 8, 38. Ritusamhära, 32. Rockhill (W.W.) 15n. 36n. 44n. 46n. 122n. 211n. Rodh monastery, 94. INDEX. Rohini river, 13. Rome, 84, 100, 147; 152. Rouse (W.H.D.) 53n. Rudra=Siva, 94. Rüpävachara, 39. Romo-Corinthian, DM Sabbadätha-jätaka, 53f. sacred places, 143n. Sächi, 38. Sädhanamäld, 4. Sagara, 146. Sahampati=Brahmä, 39. sahasrabähu, 204. Sahassaneto=Sakra, 38. Säkala, 77. Sakka or Sakra, Indra, 7, 8, 38, 47, 61, 87, 90, 91n. 94, 112, 125, 133n. 140, 145, 155) 182, 192. Sakti, 105; see Sarasvati, 183. Sakya Muni, see Buddha, Gautama, 9, 143. Sala (Pali), Skt. Sala, 111, 119, 121, 1S1n. Samantabhadra, 182, 184, 195. Sam-ye, 92n. Säncht, 5, 17, 18, 19, 21-26, 29, 33-39, 41, 42, 47-50, 58, 59, 62-71, 72-74,87, 111, 115, 126, 157, 191; measurements, 72n. Sangala, Sänkala, 77. Sangha, 205. Sanghamittä, 26. Sänghäo, 23, 89, 94, 109, 118, 186. Sankhachüda, 49n. Sankisa, 22. sansära, 12, 197. Sanskrit, 80. Saoshyant, 190. sapta-padäni, 139. sapta ratnäni, Pali: Sapta Tathägata, 183. Sarasvati, 105, 106, Jap. Ben-ten, 148n. 183. Säriputta, Skt. Säriputra, 182, 211. Sarnäth, 22, 143; see Isipatana. Sarvästivädin school, 80. Sätägera Yaksha, 45. Sätakarzi, 25n. Satakratu, see Sakka, 139. Satamanya, see Sakka, 90. Sätapanni, Skt. Sätaparna, 15. satva, Päli: satta, 181. Sävatthi, Skt. Srävasti, 10. Scherman (L.) 9. Schiefner, 94n. 95n. Schlagintweit (E.) 187. Seleukos. Nikator, 4, 76. Senart (E) 16n. 79n. 84, 103, 218 Se-ra, 92n. Shähderi, 23. Shahr-i-Bahlol, 83. Sha-kya-thub-pa,—Säkya-Buddha, 128. Shän people, 175. Shan-hsi, 197n, satta ratandni, 159. INDEX. Sher-p‘yin-ma, 204. shorea robusta, 181n. Siam, Siamese, 31, 80, 103, 175. Siddhas, 47n. Siddhartha, Pali: Siddhatta, Gautama, 4, 9, 13, 113, 145. Sthaladipa, Skt. Simhaladvipa, Ceylon, 70. Sikh, 159. Sikhi Buddha, Pali: Sikhi, 74, 181, 188. Sikri, 103, 140. Silenos, 34, 82, 86, 139n. 213. Simha, 5, 80; Bodhisattva, 184. Simhanida, 159n. simhas, 155. simhäsana, 136n. simhastambha, 20. Simpson (W.) 19n. 152, 218. simurg, 48. Sindhu river, 10. Singalese, 20, 26, 114n. 181. sirens, 47. 7 Sirt (Pali), Skt. Sri, see Lakshmi, Tiru- magal, 37, 39, 40, 74, 105, 198; Sirima devata, 40, 41. sirisa, ficus religiosa, 181n. Siva, 43, 72n. 94, 138n. Skylax, 10. Smara,—-Käma, 95. Smith (Vincent A.) 82-84, 125, 134-135, 138n. 152, 218. Soastos river, 83. Socrates, 9. Sophocles, 189. Sosiosh, Saoshyant, 190. Sravasti, Pali: Sävatthi, 10. Srivatsa figure, 162. Stambha, 20. Stein (M. A.), 79n. 218. sthaviras, 46, 205, 210. Sthävarä, Prithivi, 101. stotra, 93. Strabo, 91. stüpa, 15, 19-26, 29, 34, 36, 58, 59, 67, 71, 180, 187; miniature Stfipis 154-156. Subhadra, Pali: Subhadda, 115, 122. Subhavastu, Swit river, 43. Suchiloma Yakkha, 45. süchi, 21, 41. Suddhaväsa, Pali: Suddhaväsa, 60n. Suddhodana, 13, 139, 155; see Buddha. Sujätä, 73. Sukhävati, see Amitäbha, 170,195; Sukhd- vati-vyüha, 194n. Suleis, 93. Sumanakülta, 72. Sumedha or Megha, 142, 143. Sunga dynasty, 77. Sung-yun, 5, 81. Supärä, 191. Suparna,—Garuda, 48, 49. Supavasa Yakkha, 45. Sürya, 41, 130, Susa, 17. 229) Sütras, buddhist, see Jätaka, 7, 37, 38, 41, 49. Suvästu, Swit river, 83. Sven Hedin, 174n. svastika, 162. Swat, Subhavastu, 23, 43, 83, 115, 125, 138, 140, 141, 144, 169, 171, 182, 186, 189, 190, 211. Syrian kingdom, 76. IR täbij, ta’wiz, 116. takka, takkei, 32. Takht-i-Bahi, 23, 85, 117, 163, 164, 167, 170, 174, 185. tila, 129. Tamil, 32, 35, 40n.; see Kural, Tiruvallu- var, Tirumaga/, aram, mundu, takkei, sokdi. Tanjor, 113n. Tanjur, Vib. dsTan-gyur, 3. Tantra, 190, 213. Tard, 93n. Täränätha, 81n. 174, 208. Tathigata, 46, 180. Taurus, Skt. lävuri, 130, 131. Tävatimsa, Skt. Trayastrimsat, 38, 61, 90, 182. Taylor (Col.), 25. Temple (R.C.) 197n. Ten-gu, Garuda, 51. Tennant (Sir E.) 72n. Ten-nin, 49. thambha, Skt. Stambha, 20. Theodoros inscription, 84. Thien-kon, Garuda, 51, 52. Thomas (St.) 78. thrones, 28, 29, 53, 56, 57. thupa, Skt. stüpa, 20. Thurston (E.) 33n. Tibet, Tibetan, 3, 6, 9, 27, 31, 68, 80, 105, 110, 133, 175, 185-187, 192, 201, 206; ‘Libetan dog, 51. 'Tin-thäl at Elurä, 196, 197. Tirhut, 22. tirtha, 62. Tirthakas, 122. Tirthamkaras, 43n. 181n. Tirumagal, Sri, or Bhümidevi, 37, 40. 'Tiruvalluvar, 40n. Tiryagyoni, 18n. 52, 58. Iissa,026. Tomaschek, 206n. torana, 21, 28; tori-i (Jap.) 21. Trailokya, 39. Tra-shi-Ihum-po, 205, 206, trees of the Buddhas, 181n. Triküta, 43. Tripitaka, 5. triratna or triad, 183. trisula, 92, 145. Turushkas, Turks, 79. Tushita, Pali: Tusita, 61, 132, . 228 Tyche or Fortuna, 40. U. Udayagiri, in Orissa, 22,23, in Malwa, 40, 41. i Udayana, 68, 170-172, 213. Udyäna, Pali: Ujjana, Gr. Suasténi, 43, 76, 80. Udumbara, ficus glomerata, 181n. Ujjayini, 26. Ujjeniya, son of Asoka, 26. U-K‘ong, 80. Upävana, 122. Uraeus, 44. ürnd, Pali: unna, 161, 162, 166, 182. Uruvilva, Pali: Uruvelä, 14, 62, 64, 65, 73, 126-128. ushnisha, 161, 162, 164, 211, 212. Ushaishavijayä, Tib. gTsug-tor-7nam-par- rgyal-ma, 204. Utpala flower, 143. Uttaräshädha, 131. V. vdhana, 40n. 41n. 87. Vaibhäshika school, 80. Vairochana Buddha, 195. Vaisäkha nakshatra, 130, 131. Vaisäli, Pali: Vesäli, 15. Vaisramana, Vaisrivana, 136, 148n.; see Kubera, vajra, 38, 90, 92n. 93, 139, 140, 155, 192. Vajrapäni, Sakra, 38, 90, 91, 93-95, 106, 108, 118n. 120, 121, 125, 184, 185, 195, 197, 203. vajräsana, 14, 100, 143n. 172. Vajräyudha, 38. Vallée Poussin (L. de la) 113n. vardhamäna figure, 162. Väsavo,—Sakra, 38. Vasavarti, Pali: Vasavatthi, 39, 97. Vasishtha, 25n. Vassilief (V.) 95n. 190n. Veda, vedic, 7, 8, 38, 49, 54, 105, 158. Veddäs, 72. Vejayanta, 38. . Vessabhü (Pali), Skt. Visvabhü, 74, 181, 188. Vessanagara, mod. Besnagar, 26. Vethadipa, 15. Vidisä, Bhilsa, 24. Vidyadharas, 47n. vihära, 15,20, 21. Vikautuka Bodhisattva, 184. INDEX. Vikramäditya, 53, 74. vind, 105. Vipasyi, Pali: Vipassi, 74, 181, 188. Virddhaka, 40n. 45, 136, 138. Virüpäksha, 43, 136, 183. Vishzu, Vaishnavı mythology, In. 37n. 72, 159, Visvabhü, see Vessibhti. Visvakarma, 95. Visvantara Jätaka, 150. Visvapini, 184, 185. viyanga, girdle, 41. W. Waddell (Dr. L. A.) 105n. 177n. 193n. 218. Wei-chi-I-söng of Khotan, 168. wheel symbol, 145, 151, 158-159. woman in sculpture, 35. wood-carving, 29-30. Wu-t‘ai-shan, 197n. Xerxes, 4, 10, Nee Yaksha, Pali: Yakkha, 36, 40n. 41, 43n. 45, 46, 73, 95, 102n. 103, 104, 111n. 136, 137, 208. Yakshini, Pali: Yakkhini, 41, 43n. 104, Slee Yama, 114. Yamuna, mod. Jamnä, 45. Yavana, Greeks, 77; Yavanini, 116, 128, 130. Yasodharä, 13. Yazdigard, 81n. ye dharmä hetuprabhavdh, 178. Yeld (Dr.) 25. Ye-tha or Sakas, 78. Yogächärya school, 184. Yoginis, sorceresses, 111. Yonaka, Yavana, 77. Yueh-chi, 76, 77, 79, 80,.208. Yule (Col. H.) 71n. 170n. Yüsufzäi, 23, 82, 110. Zr Zarathushtra, Zoroaster, 165. zebu, on pillars, 151, 152. Zeus, 91, 93, 213. Zöchö-tenno (Jap.) Virtidhaka, 136n. Zoroastrians, see Ferver, Masdayasnian Sosiosh, Mani, 81, 195. CORRIGENDA. Page 15, line 11 from bottom, read Prächyä for Prachya. 20, note 2, read mChhod-rten for mChod-rten, and gDun-rten for mDun-rten. PANN il ake » pai-lus or pai-fangs for pai-lus. 25, 1. 17,—see p. 72, note 2. 32, 1. 6 from bot. read 25 for 22. 100, under illust. read— Barberini; and in note 2, read Materialien. 101, note, read Merten for Marten; 8.587 for 8.58; and römischen for römisches. 102, note, read Däkinis for Däkhinis. 103, 1. 17, for “the Vedas ... vessel”? read—““and with two silver vases which contain ‘the three robes’ and the almsbowl for the newly ordained monk, exactly in the modern Siamese fashion” (A. Griinwedel). 103, note 3, read a sketch by for the sketch of. 105,1. 13 from bot. read Siri for Siri. 109,1. 4 m 3, Nägänanda for Nägd-nanda. 112, ll. «and 6, read Mäyä and Mäyädevi.